PSY 620P January 27, 2015

 Fraley, R. C., Roisman, G. I., & Haltigan, J. D. (2013). The legacy of early experiences in development: Formalizing alternative models of how early experiences are carried forward over time. Dev Psychol, 49(1), Sunni1 Fraley, R. C., Roisman, G. I., & Haltigan, J. D. (2013). The legacy of early experiences in development: Formalizing alternative models of how early experiences are carried forward over time. Dev Psychol, 49(1),  Adolph, K. E., S. R. Robinson, et al. (2008). "What is the shape of developmental change?" Psychological Review 115(3): Mike1What is the shape of developmental change  Brody, G. H., Chen, Y-F., Murry, V. M., Ge, X., Simons, R. L., Gibbons, F. X., Gerrard, M., & Cutrona, C. E. (2006). Perceived discrimination and the adjustment of African American youths: A five-year longitudinal analysis with contextual moderation effects. Child Development, 77, BreAnne1 Brody, G. H., Chen, Y-F., Murry, V. M., Ge, X., Simons, R. L., Gibbons, F. X., Gerrard, M., & Cutrona, C. E. (2006). Perceived discrimination and the adjustment of African American youths: A five-year longitudinal analysis with contextual moderation effects. Child Development, 77,  Oller DK, Niyogi P, Gray S, Richards JA, Gilkerson J, Xu D, Yapanel U, Warren SF: Automated vocal analysis of naturalistic recordings from children with autism, language delay, and typical development. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2010, 107: Carolyn1 Oller DK, Niyogi P, Gray S, Richards JA, Gilkerson J, Xu D, Yapanel U, Warren SF: Automated vocal analysis of naturalistic recordings from children with autism, language delay, and typical development. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2010, 107:   Optional: Shaw, D. S., Connell, A., Dishion, T. J., Wilson, M. N., & Gardner, F. (2009). Improvements in maternal depression as a mediator of intervention effects on early childhood behavior problems. Development and Psychopathology, 21, Optional: Shaw, D. S., Connell, A., Dishion, T. J., Wilson, M. N., & Gardner, F. (2009). Improvements in maternal depression as a mediator of intervention effects on early childhood behavior problems. Development and Psychopathology, 21, 

 Week 4: February 5th – The biological basis of behavior and development   Champagne, F. A., & Mashoodh, R. (2009). Genes in Context Gene–Environment Interplay and the Origins of Individual Differences in Behavior. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18(3), Cf. Szyf, M. and J. Bick (2012). "DNA Methylation: A Mechanism for Embedding Early Life Experiences in the Genome." Child Development.   Burgaleta, M., Johnson, W., Waber, D. P., Colom, R., & Karama, S. (2014). Cognitive ability changes and dynamics of cortical thickness development in healthy children and adolescents. Neuroimage, 84(0), doi:   Uddin, L. Q., Supekar, K., & Menon, V. (2013). Reconceptualizing functional brain connectivity in autism from a developmental perspective. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7. doi: /fnhum   Chen, E., Cohen, S., & Miller, G. E. (2010). How low socioeconomic status affects 2-year hormonal trajectories in children. Psychological Science, 21,   Alternates:  Lister, R., Mukamel, E. A., Nery, J. R., Urich, M., Puddifoot, C. A., Johnson, N. D., Lucero, J., Huang, Y., Dwork, A. J., Schultz, M. D., Yu, M., Tonti-Filippini, J., Heyn, H., Hu, S., Wu, J. C., Rao, A., Esteller, M., He, C., Haghighi, F. G., Sejnowski, T. J., Behrens, M. M., & Ecker, J. R. (2013). Global epigenomic reconfiguration during mammalian brain development. Science, 341(6146), doi: /science   Shaw, P., Greenstein, D., Lerch, J., Clasen, L., Lenroot, R., Gogtay, N., Evans, A., Rapoport, J., & Giedd, J. (2006). Intellectual ability and cortical development in children and adolescents. Nature, 440,

 February 12th – Perceptual Development (cont)  Vogel, M., Monesson, A., & Scott, L. S. (2012). Building biases in infancy: The influence of race on face and voice emotion matching. Developmental Science, 15,   Maurer, D., Mondloch, C. J., & Lewis, T. L. (2007). Sleeper effects. Developmental Science, 10,   Papageorgiou, K. A., Smith, T. J., Wu, R., Johnson, M. H., Kirkham, N. Z., & Ronald, A. (2014). Individual Differences in Infant Fixation Duration Relate to Attention and Behavioral Control in Childhood. Psychological Science. doi: /   Jones, W., & Klin, A. (2013). Attention to eyes is present but in decline in 2-6-month-old infants later diagnosed with autism. Nature, 504(7480), doi: /nature12715

▪ State Space Grid Analysis ▪ 2-dimensional grids reflecting co-occurrence of 2 or more variables

Messinger

 Design  Developmental Designs  Internal and External Validity of a Study ▪ Threats to Internal Validity  Measurement  Reliability and Validity of Measures  Instrument Construction Stages  Dealing with missing data  Ethics in Developmental Studies  Children as vulnerable population  Assent  Analysis  Visualizing your data  Hypothesis Testing  Approaches to Analyzing Change over Time

 Replicability  Access to samples  Replicable (objective?) measurement  Addressing the crisis…

 Strange Situation examples Strange Situation examples

Mattson, et al.,PLOS One, 2013

Messinger  Between subject  A treatment (independent variable) is assigned randomly  creating treatment and control groups  Within-subject  All infants get treatment and control  Examples ▪ Rating study, Face-to-face still-face

Messinger  Gazes at stimulus  habituation and paired preference designs  Sucking & leg kicks  Response contingencies

Messinger  Quasi-experimental  differences in naturally occurring groups  Observational -  Differences in naturally occurring conditions  Complementary, not exclusive  Is age (development) studied experimentally or observationally?

Alfieri et al., 1996 T indicates children who have just transition from junior high school

Belfort et al., 2013

Messinger  Quasi-experiment  Between subject exploration of differences in naturally occurring groups ▪ Drug exposure, breast-feeding, and attachment groups  Observational  Differences in naturally occurring conditions ▪ Gazing at mother versus gazing away

Messinger  Experimental and all observational approaches measures variables  Variable - a measurable component of behavior or physiological functioning that can take on different values  Not all aspects of behavior or physiology  specific features of interest

Messinger  Intensive description in regular language  Not measuring variables ▪ E.g., baby biography, one infant described over time  Pro: Insight into individual and developmental process  Emerged with romantic emphasis on individual  Con: Not generalizable  Complementary, not exclusive

Longitudinal vs. cross-sectional designs

 Longitudinal vs. cross-sectional designs  Longitudinal ▪ Strengths: ▪ Weaknesses:  Cross-sectional ▪ Strengths: ▪ Weaknesses:

Messinger  Same infants over time  Pro: Answers ‘How do individuals change in time?’  Con: Takes a long time  Attrition

Rosenquist et al. PNAS | January 13, 2015 | vol. 112 | no. 2 | 357

Messinger  Different infants at different times  Pro: Efficient, large numbers of subjects  Con: Differences do not necessarily reflect individual’s development  e.g. cohort

Messinger  Development is relatively stable on large time scales  Motor, physical, emotional, communicative  But choppy on smaller scales  Only longitudinal research can show individual development  Emergent order from chaotic, dynamic systems

 Many developmental trajectories  Accurate depiction of trajectory depends on sampling rate of observations  “Microgenetic method” – small time intervals to observe developmental process  Overly large sampling intervals can distort shape of change Gangi  produce errors in estimating onset ages  inaccurate picture of developm ental trajectory

Messinger Birth 13.75” 6 mos.. 17” 12 mos. 18” 24 mos. 19”

Messinger

Hypothetical example (Lamb et al.)

Messinger  Continuity (=absolute change)  Behavior level is continuous (discontinuous) across ages  How does a behavior change in form and/or function over the course of development?  Stability  Rank of individual in group is stable  How does a behavior change differently among individuals in the same group? (=relative change)

Messinger  A single study can combine longitudinal and cross-sectional methods  Some infant studies use neither method  They look at behavior at one point in time ▪ E.g., Neonate study

Validity of Developmental Studies  External validity =  Internal validity =  Methodological soundness of study allowing changes in DV to be attributed to the IV  Threats to internal validity = uncontrolled confounds ▪ Need to control for various methodological confounds through adequate sampling, random assignment (when possible), inclusion of control group etc.

Threats of particular concern in Developmental Studies (cont)  History:  Maturation:  Testing:  Instrumentation:  Regression: ▪ Example of Regression * Selection effect

Threats of particular concern in Developmental Studies: Regression  High anxious freshmen selected for intervention in first week of school; by mid- year show significant decrease in anxiety PretestInterventionPosttest 90 70

 The process of quantifying abstract concepts such as: ▪ Intelligence ▪ Sociability ▪ Emotion Regulation  Developmental assessments often rely on indirect measures  i.e., habituation/dishabituation in infancy as index of processing

Messinger  Are we measuring what we think we’re measuring,  Do the variables measured the constructs mentioned in the research questions?  There is no final answer ▪ Reunion behavior = Attachment? ▪ Smiling = Joy? ▪ Looking = Preference? ▪ Heart rate = Arousal?

 Requires  Detailed operational definitions  Creation of sensitive instruments  Rules for scoring instrument to create summary scores

 Validity  Does measure provide intended information for intended population? ▪ Can vary with age and subgroup (e.g., ethnicity or SES)  Reliability  How consistent is children’s behavior? ▪ Tends to increases with age and diversity of sample

 Observational Measures  How will behaviors be “parsed” ▪ Event-based ▪ Time-sampling

Messinger  Observed on-line or video-recorded  Measured with  Trait rating - global judgement  Time sampling  Event sampling (frequency)  Event sampling (duration)

Messinger

 Heart rate & respiration (video)  avoidant infants, infants on visual cliff  Electroencephalogram  Relative lateral activation during crying  Actigraphy  Index of ADD?  Increasingly important supplement to behavioral measures

 Missing Data  Most common reason for low power in studies of change over time  Options  Deletion  Substitution  Imputation

 The methodological literature favors maximum likelihood and multiple imputation  a strong theoretical foundation, less restrictive assumptions, and the potential for bias reduction and greater power.  Benefits are especially important for developmental research where attrition is a pervasive problem Enders, Craig K. Child Development Perspectives, Vol 7(1), Mar 2013,

Messinger  Reliability  Consistency of measurement ▪ Inter-rater reliability of observations  Bias  Systematic impact of unmeasured variables ▪ Blinding in drug studies ▪ Keeping observations independent

 Analysis  Approaches to Analyzing Change over Time ▪ Describing group level patterns of change over time ▪ Describing individual differences in patterns of change ▪ Processes underlying/modifying patterns of change ▪ Mediating and moderating variables