The International System Before World War I

The ‘Concert of Europe’ ( ) International Relations from the Congress of Vienna to WW I Informally established at the Congress of Vienna Manage relations among European powers Basis: Great Powers : Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia –The Quadruple Alliance (Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia) to defeat Napoleon, block French aggression enforce the peace settlement. Quintuple Alliance when France is admitted in 1818 Holy Alliance (Austria, Prussia, Russia) 1815 – – promote Christian principles in the affairs of nations. First patterned international org. in modern world

The ‘concert’ and the ‘balance of power’ Great powers meet at Congresses to agree on policies Armed intervention against threats to territory and the status quo – Shifting alliances to prevent rise of ‘superpower’ Small powers must conform to decisions taken by Great Powers Non-Europeans excluded

Upsetting the balance Germany unifies, & seeks its ‘place in the sun’ Weakening multinational empires Solidification of alliances > Growing rigidity, absence of balancing mechanism(s), rising tensions

German unification and its impact Germany as disparate collections of states & principalities Unification engineered by Otto von Bismarck Bismarck’s problem: forging unity where there was none: –Divide and rule tactics –Kultuurkampf and anti-Socialist laws Germany seeks colonies and markets –Morocco crises: 1906 and 1911 –Middle-East (Berlin to Baghdad railway)

Rising nationalism, the Eastern Question & the weakening of multi-national empires Ottoman Empire –Pressed from within & without Young Turks Nationalist demands Austria-Hungary –Absence of common institutions –Rising nationalism –Decreasing ability of either Austria or Hungary to contain it

Rigidification International system nominally regulated by the balance of power But Britain remains more aloof Alliance system rigidifies: –antagonistic blocs confront each other

Triple Alliance v. the Triple Entente –Triple Alliance: GermanyAustria-HungaryItaly –Triple Entente FranceRussiaBritain

Germany Wanted its ‘place in the sun’ Weltpolitik (world policy): –build up navy (Dreadnought class of ships) in order to rival Britain Attempts to drive Britain and France apart (Moroccan Crises (1905 & 1911 ) bring them together Staunch support for Austria-Hungary Willing to consider war as tool of policy –Von Clausevitz: War = politics by other means –common at the time among great powers, –necessary to the balance of power mechanism Wanted to fight before too late – i.e. before Russia rearms

Austria-Hungary Multinational empire threatened by –Demands for popular participation, making it harder to maintain balance among groups –Rising nationalism in Balkans Dependent on external support Anxious to –contain Serbia –prevent states on its border from becoming too powerful

Russia Autocratic multinational empire –Defeated in Russo-Japanese War, –Political system broadened after Revolution of 1905 powers granted to an elected parliament (Duma), then gradually withdrawn –Rearming & modernizing military Aligned with France, Serbia Interested in access to Mediterranean – via Dardanelles

France Wants to reassert self as a great power Interest in –Restraining Germany –Regaining Alsace & Lorraine Wants to maintain & expand colonial holdings Allied with Russia and Britain

Italy Interest in colonial acquisitions Interest in territorial gains from Austria –South Tyrol –Trieste, Fiume-Rjieka Nominally allied with Germany and Austria Does not become immediately involved (when it does, joins Britain and France)

Britain Preoccupied with domestic issues Anxious to maintain naval superiority, freedom of the seas, Empire Prefer to remain aloof from continental conflicts – –provides the balance the system Guarantor of neutrals: Belgium & Netherlands

Causes of war Continuing debate, multiple explanations, some better than others: Arms race & especially those who benefitted: munitions-makers Entangling alliances and secret covenants (Woodrow Wilson) Nationalism Capitalism itself (Orthodox Marxists)

A broader view: Long: industrialization, population growth, social and political change Medium: –changes in the balance of power –rise of Germany a threat to France and Britain –decline of Ottoman empire Short: events of August 1914

A further take Systemic factors: balance of power (prevent Germany from becoming dominant power) German aggression (Weltpolitik)? Declining empires? Failure of the balance of power system Failure of the balance of power system Entangling alliances Failure of Britain to make its position clear?

Other factors Popular pressure because of nationalism, newspapers, Inflexible military plans Willingness of leaders to take great risks, partially but not fully understood Or Slide into war, with consequences not fully understood

Dynamics of events June-August 1914 June 28: Assassination in Sarajevo of Franz-Ferdinand and wife Austria blames Serbia (parallel with the 1990s) The German ‘blank-check’ (they believe Russia will not intervene and if it does Germany can deal with both Russia and France –Schlieffen plan)

June-August 1914 Austria’s ultimatum of July 23 (parallel with Rambouillet). Serbia begins mobilization July 25 answer is given. July 28 declaration of war. July 29 first shells on Belgrade. July 29: Russia calls for general mobilization (against both Austria and Germany). Rethinks it and then starts again.

June-July 1914 July 29: France tells Russia it will stand by her ally Germany tells Russia to stop mobilization and France to declare neutrality When Russia refuses, Germany declares war on Aug. 1. France, –not believing Germany would respect neutrality, mobilizes.

June-August 1914 Germany asks Belgium for free passage, then declares war on France (Aug. 2) Britain declares war on Germany, Aug. 4. Italy: seeks colonies, advantage, where it can get it War greeted with enthusiasm & nationalist fervor on both sides –Last European war, , lasted 6 months

WW1: expectations v. realities: A short war Failure of initial offensives –Improper implementation of the Schlieffen Plan (Von Moltke modifications) Digging in on the western front: offence gives way –Trench warfare –Tunnelling Movement on the eastern front

Western Front, 1916

Trenches

War fields - Somme

Battle of the Somme – 1 July

After 16 days of battle – July 16

Hawthorn Ridge mine 1 July 1916

In the trenches

Attack

The tank appears

Beaumont-Hamel Newfoundland War Memorial

The Fighting Newfoundlander –St. John’s

Newfoundland Regiment No. 3 Platoon, A Company

Newfoundland soldiers on St. John’s Road

Beaumont-Hamel war field

The ‘Danger Tree’

Aerial view of Passchendaele village, before and after the battle

A common sight in the Somme

Costs in human life Battle of the Somme –Allies: 600,000 ( of which over 24,000 Canadians and over 245 Newfoundlanders) –July 1 alone: 60,000 –Germans: 615,000 Total for WWI 9,000,000

Casualties

Failure of peace initiatives Desire of France and Germany to maintain buffer states on borders Incorporation of new allies with demands on territory of belligerents

Determining factors: Supply of food and raw materials Exhaustion of combatants Success of British naval blockade American entry (triggered by German submarine warfare)

Consequences: an initial view End of empires in Berlin, Vienna, St. Petersburg (Bolshevik revolution of 1917) and Constantinople-Istanbul. European economic dislocation, indebtedness of European countries to the United States and end of central role of Europe in the global economy and rise of the US. Widespread disillusionment