Semantics LI 2013 Nathalie F. Martin

Bibliography / References Primary Reference and reading: Contemporary Linguistic Analysis (O’Grady & Archibald, 2009, p. 190-207) Reading: Ambiguity in College Writing (Stageberb, Norman C., in Linguistics at Work: A Reader of Application, by Dallin D. Oaks, 1998) Secondary Reference (for information only): A Concise Introduction to Linguistics (Rowe & Levine, 2009; 153-173)

Table of Content Introduction: Ambiguity (review of text) Concept, Referent and Form Semantics Meaning Semantic Relations Among Words The –NYMS Meaning of Phrases and Sentences Meaning of Words Through Time

Ambiguity Review of the text: Ambiguity in College Writing (Stageberb, Norman C., in Linguistics at Work: A Reader of Application, by Dallin D. Oaks, 1998)

Multiple Meanings ______________ E.g. For many purposes they used obsidian or volcanic rock. E.g. a fat lady’s man E.g. Many hands make light work. (in given example) E.g. I am an outdoor lover. “Out-of-doors lover” … or … ? Ambiguity in College Writing (Stageberb)

What Ambiguity? Lexical ambiguity? Syntactic ambiguity? Class ambiguity? Script ambiguity?

What Ambiguity? Lexical ambiguity? Syntactic ambiguity? Class ambiguity? Script ambiguity?

What Ambiguity? Lexical ambiguity? Syntactic ambiguity? Class ambiguity? Script ambiguity?

What Ambiguity? Lexical ambiguity? Syntactic ambiguity? Class ambiguity? Script ambiguity?

What Ambiguity? Lexical ambiguity? Syntactic ambiguity? Class ambiguity? Script ambiguity?

What Ambiguity? Lexical ambiguity? Syntactic ambiguity? Class ambiguity? Script ambiguity?

What Ambiguity? Lexical ambiguity? Syntactic ambiguity? Class ambiguity? Script ambiguity?

A small business man. What Ambiguity? Lexical ambiguity? Syntactic ambiguity? Class ambiguity? Script ambiguity? A small business man.

What Ambiguity? Lexical ambiguity? Syntactic ambiguity? Class ambiguity? Script ambiguity?

Concept, Referent and Form Preliminary theory to semantics The Abstract Side of Language

Referent: the actual thing

Referent, Concept and Symbol (word) [bərd] [bərd] CONCEPT (abstract, in our heads) Qu’est-ce que le langage? (Leclerc)

Referent, Concept and Symbol (word) [bərd] CONCEPT (abstract, in our heads) REFERENT (the actual thing) Ferdinand de Saussure Qu’est-ce que le langage? (Leclerc)

Referent, Concept and Symbol The __________ refers to the linguistic elements (word, sentence, etc.), the __________ refers to the object in the world of experience, and THOUGHT or REFERENCE refers to __________ . The symbol or a word signifies “things” by virtue of the “concept” associated with the form of the word in the minds of the speaker of the language, and the concept looked at from this point of view is the meaning of the word. e.g. The dog over there looks friendly. The word “dog” is directly associated with a certain concept in our mind, i.e. what a “dog” is like, but it is not directly linked to the referent (the particular dog) in this particular case.

Referent, Concept and Symbol There is not a direct link between the sound of the word dog (Symbol) and the object it refers to. What is called the signified is not actually what we have been shown but an abstract concept formed in our mind. Refers to evokes Symbol Stands for Referent  no direct relationship Semantic Triangle Ogden & Richards

Romeo and Juliette (Shakespeare) 'Tis but thy name that is my enemy; Thou art thyself, though not a Montague. What's Montague? it is nor hand, nor foot, Nor arm, nor face, nor any other part Belonging to a man. O, be some other name! What's in a name? that which we call a rose By any other name would smell as sweet; So Romeo would, were he not Romeo call'd, Retain that dear perfection which he owes Without that title. Romeo, doff thy name, And for that name which is no part of thee Take all myself

Review: The Psychic Side of Things Symbol Concept Sounds bərd] __________ __________ of the sound « acoustique image » (sound pattern) A string of phonemes (sounds) Psychic imprint We reffer to this mental imprint to understand when someone speaks Common to speakers of that language (therefore conventional) (__________ __________ of reality) -Psychic -Mental image of the referent - Ex: covered in feathers, has a bec, etc. Ferdinand de Saussure

Concepts Across Languages « Win » (Eng) « Gagner » (Fr) « Devancer » (fr) (to be ahead) Beat / « Beater » (Acadian French)

Semantics

Definition: Semantics Semantics is the study of the __________ of linguistic expressions, such as morphemes, words, phrases, clauses, and sentences.

What is the Meaning of This? Cold Old Fine Cool Fly Behind Accent Nobody This Getting in touch

CONTEXT is Key ! – Certain aspects of meaning change with the __________ __________ Nobody bought milk (store owner vs. room mates) X is old: “old” means different things depending on what X is (person, food, currency, place, friend…) Context is therefore very important!!

Semantics Two types of semantics: __________ __________ : meaning of words __________ __________ : meaning of utterances larger than words

FIVE APPROACHES TO MEANING: Connotation Denotation Extension and intention Componential Analysis Subcategorization of verbs Actantial Approach

What is “word meaning”? What does it mean when you say you know the meaning of a word? What does it mean when you say you know a word, such as “bird” “blue”, or “happy” ? How do we __________ of a word meaning?

1. Connotation « Set of associations that a word’s use can evoke » e.g. winter

2. Denotation According to __________ __________ … To equate meaning to a word or phrase with actual entities to which it refers e.g. * But what about __________ things that have no referents !!!

____ referents for one thing Denotation ____ referents for one thing the same thing e.g. Paul Martin:

3. Extension versus intention A word’s extension corresponds to the __________ that it __________ in the world (__________ ) A word’s intension corresponds to its __________ __________ or the __________ that __________ . * The distinction stipulates the relation between referents and meanings

4. Componential Analysis Used to represents the word’s INTENTION Also called: Componential Analysis Or Semantic Decomposition

Componential Analysis Contemporary Linguistics Analysis: p. 196 INTENTION Componential Analysis Semantic properties: The __________ of meaning of a word. Semantic feature: A notational device for expressing the __________ or __________ of semantic properties by “+” and “-”. Example of componential analysis: “baby” is [+ young], [+ human], [– abstract].

Componential Analysis INTENTION 1. (a) widow, mother, sister, aunt, maid (b) widower, father, brother, uncle, valet The (a) and (b) words are The (a) words are The (b) words are [ human] [ female] [ male] 2. (a) bachelor, paperboy, pope, chief (b) bull, rooster, drake, ram The (a) and (b) words are The (a) words are The (b) words are [ male] [ human] [ animal]

Componential Analysis INTENTION 3. (a) table, stone, pencil, cup, house, ship (b) milk, alcohol, rice, soup, mud The (a) words are The (b) words are [ count] [ count] 4. (a) pine, elm, sycamore (b) dandelion, aster, daisy The (a) and (b) words are The (a) words are The (b) words are [ plant] [ tree] [ flower]

Componential Analysis INTENTION SWINE Definition: an adult female swine; also : the adult female of various other animals (as a bear) http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ Semantic Analysis: [ animal], [ swine], [ male] or [ female]

Componential Analysis INTENTION CAR Definition: A vehicle moving on wheels http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ Semantic Analysis: [ vehicle], [ motorized], [ 4 wheels] …

Componential Analysis INTENTION BUTTERFLY Definition: any of numerous slender-bodied diurnal lepidopteran insects including one superfamily (Papilionoidea) with broad often brightly colored wings and usually another superfamily comprising the skippers http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ Semantic Analysis: [+ ], [+ ], [- ] …

5. Subcategorization of verbs 2 complements: No complement: Fax Murmur Radio Mumble Wire Mutter Phone Shriek Emphasis on: Emphasis on: - __________ ____ - __________ ______ So there’s a link between _________and __________!!!

6. Actantial Approach In defining verbs we should also describe their __________ and the __________ : A1 tosses A2 to A3: A1 = [+ human] A2 = [+ concrete], [+ movable], [+ small] A3 = [± human] or [+ living/moving], [+ with hands] … * Again, this is a combination of _______ and _________!

Semantic Relations Among Words The –Nyms: Hyponym, hypernym and cohyponym Synonym and parasynonyms Antonyms Polysemy Homonym Homonyms Homophone Homographs

1. Hyponyms (Semantic Relations among Words) Hyponyms and hypernyms Hyponymy: Words whose meanings are __________ instances of a more general word, e.g. isosceles and equilateral are hyponyms of the word triangle. Hyponyms and cohyponyms Let’s organize these words: Dance (verb) Salsa Exercice Tango

2. Synonyms (Semantic Relations among Words) Synonymy: words that have the _______ meanings, e.g. start & begin.

Synonyms or Parasynonyms? Vacation = holidays Youth = adolescent Remember = recall Purchase = buy Big = large

Synonyms & Parasynonyms Pride and Prejudice, a screenplay by Deborah Moggach The danger of parasynonyms and over-extension Chapter 3 : 20 minutes into the movie Odious Long Dote one her In raptures Accomplished 

3. Antonyms a. Gradable vs Ungradable b. Converse c. Reversives

Antonyms vs Synonyms Antonymy: words that are __________ in meanings, e.g. hot & cold. Synonymy or Antonymy Flourish – thrive Intelligent – stupid Casual – informal Flog – whip Drunk – sober synonym antonym

a. Gradable/ungradable antonyms Grading involves __________ . When we compare two or more objects. Do the objects have the property to the same ______or not: - + … cold cool warm hot … Gradable: “colder” The weather is much colder this week than last week. Ungradable: “male” ٭John is as much male as Peter. ٭John is more male than Peter.

a. Gradable/ungradable antonyms (continued) Exception: Normal language behavior: ungradable antonyms can sometimes be graded in speech. The reasons for it are pragmatic. Example John is more of a bachelor than Daniel (i.e. more determined never to get married, partying, had never had a stable girlfriend, etc.) I am more alive now than ever (i.e. feeling more energetic, satisfied with my life, etc).

b. Conversives There is a __________ ___ between both Without one you don’t have the other: Examples: Husband – wife Doctor – patient Master – mistress Before - after Above – below, etc. Often used to speak of __________ social roles, __________ and __________ relations.

c. Reversives Another term: __________ __________ . Examples of directional opposites include: Examples: Up - down Come - go Arrive – depart Common feature: implication of _________in one of the two opposite directions __________ __________ .

Antonyms (review) Gradable vs Ungradable? Converse? Reversives?

4. Polysemy Semantic Relations among Words Polysemy: A word which has ___or more __________ meanings e.g. bright: ‘bright light’ ; ‘bright colors’

5. Homonymy Semantic Relations among Words Homonymy: A word which has ________or more __________ __________ meanings e.g. club: ‘a social organization’ ; ‘a blunt weapon’.

Identifying Homonyms in Jokes 1. Time flies _____an arrow Fruit flies _____ a banana 2. Policeman: Why have you parked your car here? Motorist: Because the sign says “ for Parking”. 3. Customer: Have you got half-inch ? Ironmonger: Yes, sir. Customer: Then could you scratch my back. It’s very itchy

Homonymy or Polysemy ?

Homonymy or Polysemy ?

Polysemy & Homonymy ?

Homonyms, Homophony & Homography Homophony: Different words ______________ but ____________________ , e.g. two and too. Homography: Different words __________ but __________________ e.g. minute and minute. Homonyms are words that are homophones and homographs.

Identifying homophones 1. [steər]  1. Stair, stare 2. [weist]  2. waste, waist 3. [si:lIη]  3. sealing, ceiling 4. [kju:]  4. cue, queue 5. [sent]  5. sent, cent, scent

Identifying Homographs Read Wind Live Tear Invalid Bow Dove

Semantic Relations: Phrases and Sentences Structural Semantics: Contradictions Oxymorons Anomalous utterances Metaphors Idioms Etc.

Paraphrase Paraphrase: __________ that can have the _____ meaning. a. The police chased the burglar & The burglar was chased by the police. b. Paul bought a car from Sue & Sue sold a car to Paul

Entailment Entailment: a relation in which the of one sentence necessarily the of another. Examples of asymmetrical entailment. a. The park wardens killed the tiger. & The tiger is dead. b. Robin is a man & Robin is human

Contradiction Contradiction: When two sentences __________ __________ . a. Charles is a bachelor. b. Charles is married.

Metaphor and Metonymy All the world's a stage, And all the men and women merely players They have their exits and their entrances The White House said ... The pen is mightier than the sword

Metaphor: The understanding of one concept __________ of another Happy or Sad? 1. I’m feeling up Happy 2. Her spirits sank Sad 3. That boosted my spirits Happy 4. The height of ecstacy Happy 5. The depths of misery Sad 6. He fell into a depression Sad Emotions: Happy is Up; Sad is down

Synecdoche, Allegory, Hyperbole Part for whole: head for cattle Whole for part: the police, the Pentagon Species for genus: kleenex Genus for species: PC

Idioms Two central features of idioms: The meaning of the idiomatic expression cannot be deduced by the examining the ________________ . The expression is both grammatically and lexically. For example: Put a sock in it = ‘stop talking’

Can you identify the meanings of the following idioms? Ring a bell. It sounds familiar to you / You have heard it before By word of mouth. In a spoken form. On the house. Free for the customers. Hot spot A place of political danger. A lively nightclub. An area on the screen which can be clicked on to start an operation such as loading a file. An area where you can get connected to the Internet through a wireless network.

Cross-Cultural Misunderstanding of Idioms Can’t translate from language to another: « Foot in your mouth » vs. « Doigt dans l’œil » Sometimes leads to misunderstanding:

Compound Words Compound words are treated as having one __________ and is not necessarily the adding together of the two individual meanings of the two words. Ex: « High chair » « tooth brush »

Meaning of Words Through Time

Neologism (or Coinage)

Neologism (or Coinage) Using derivation:

Evolution of Meaning Language Changes a lot, not just in adding new words here and there, but also as the meaning of these words change with time. « Cool » used to mean « not warm/cold ». Then the meaning changed. Now, « cool », is not really that « cool » anymore !

Evolution of Extension BARRER (Acadian French): Blocked river Block road Block door (locked) This is how you get __________ 

Evolution of Extension 