Attitudes and Consistency Theories 1

What is an attitude? Definition: An attitude is a psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating something with a degree of favor or disfavor” Attitudes are: ◦Learned or acquired ◦Predispositions to respond ◦Evaluative, e.g., favorable or unfavorable ◦Directed toward something (attitude object) 2

Self report scales Likert scales Known as “equal appearing interval” scales 5-7 scale points Ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree Uncertainty regarding the neutral point Sample Likert-Type Scale Item The death penalty should be abolished. _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ strongly moderately neutral/ moderately strongly agree agree not sure disagree disagree 3

Self report scales Semantic Differential Scales Based on the connotations of words Relies on bipolar adjectives (antonyms) 5-7 scale points Respondent checks the “semantic space” between the antonyms Uncertainty regarding the neutral space Sample scale items from McCroskey’s Ethos Scale Kanye West expert ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ inexpert unselfish ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ selfish timid ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ bold tense ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ relaxed trained ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ untrained 4

Implicit Association Test The IAT measures the strength of associations between concepts (e.g., black people, gay people) and positive or negative attitudes or stereotypes. making a response is easier/faster when closely related items share the same response key. 5

Visual scales 6 Visual analog scale How much do you favor establishing a federal handgun registry? stronglystrongly opposefavor

Attitude-Behavior Correlation Attitude-Behavior Correlation (ABC) is stronger when: ◦A specific attitude is being measured. ◦Multiple measures of the attitude are made. ◦The attitude is based on personal experience. ◦The attitude was formed via central processing. ◦Attitudes central to the belief system are involved. ◦The respondents are low self-monitors. ◦The attitude is accessible or can be activated. 7

Pitfalls in Measuring Attitudes Social Desirability Bias ◦Respondents may provide the “socially correct” response. Non-Attitudes ◦Respondents may make up opinions so as not to appear uninformed. Acquiescence Bias ◦Respondents may provide the answer they think the investigator wants to hear. Mindfulness ◦Respondents may not be aware of their own attitudes. 8

Other Ways of Inferring Attitudes Appearances ◦Clothing, artifacts, and other appearance cues Associations ◦Memberships, affiliations, social networks Behavior ◦Actions, habits, lifestyles Physiological measures ◦Galvanic skin response, facial electromyography, fMRI 9

Consistency Theories Attitudes exist in associative networks. Association are often unconscious or implicit. Changes in one attitude may have a “ripple effect” elsewhere in a person’s cognitive system. Persuaders seek to establish connections among attitudes. The goal is to link their product, brand, idea to favorable attitudes. 10 family values school prayer divorce abortion contraception sex education marital fidelity family leave premarital sex child support dead-beat dads

Manufacturing Positive Associations Image-Oriented Advertising ◦brands are matched with idealized lifestyles. ◦Symbols are appropriated and paired with brands. Brand Personality ◦Associations endow brands with human qualities. ◦fun, sophisticated, tough, youthful. Sloganeering ◦Slogans foster favorable associations. ◦“Breakfast of Champions” (Wheaties) ◦“Diamonds are forever” (DeBeers) Sponsorship ◦Brought to you by… 11

Image-Oriented Advertising A teen admires a particular brand, image, or lifestyle. ◦For example, iPhones and iTunes A new product is paired with that brand or lifestyle. ◦Ads for a new energy drink show teens listening to their iPods while enjoying the drink. The teen comes to equate the product with the brand. ◦The energy drink seems to go with iPhones and iTunes ?

Psychological Consistency People desire consistency. ◦People prefer a state of harmony among their attitudes, beliefs, behaviors. Inconsistency causes psychological discomfort. The magnitude of dissonance ◦The degree of psychological discomfort depends on the centrality of the attitudes. ◦Greater attitude salience results in greater dissonance. People are motivated to restore consistency. 13

Parenting and Consistency Theory A child admires Popeye. The child doesn’t like to eat spinach. Popeye is positively associated with spinach. This is a cognitively imbalanced state, which should motivate the child to change one of the associations

Balanced Vs. Imbalanced States Balanced psychological states Any combination of even minus signs, or all plus signs is psychologically comfortable. 15 Unbalanced psychological states Any combination of odd minus signs, or all minus signs is psychologically uncomfortable

Methods of Maintaining Consistency Denial: ignoring the inconsistency Bolstering: adding rationalizations Differentiation: distinguishing between the conflicting and non-conflicting elements Transcendence: looking at the larger picture Modifying attitudes: changing one or more associations Communicating: convincing others one is being consistent 16

Cognitive Dissonance People seek to maintain a stable, positive, self-concept. People rationalize their choices and actions in light of their self-concept. Behavior that contradicts one’s beliefs or self-concept causes dissonance. Making a decision produces dissonance or “buyer’s remorse.” The more important the decision, the greater the dissonance. 17

Dissonance in Action Lyle, a commuter, buys a large, 4 X 4, SUV. Soon afterward, the price of gasoline soars. Every time he fills up the tank, he experiences dissonance

Dissonance in Action Some ways Lyle could reduce his dissonance include: ◦Convince himself the “gas guzzler” would also be safer in a crash. ◦Take up off-road sports to justify the vehicle’s other capabilities. ◦Coach a soccer team or little league team to justify having all those seats. ◦Sell or trade-in the car at a loss and chalk it up to “experience.” 19

The Magnitude of Dissonance Free choice paradigm ◦the more free choice one has in making a decision, the more dissonance one will suffer. Belief disconfirmation ◦Exposure to information contrary to strongly held beliefs may increase adherence to those beliefs (e.g., stubbornness). Induced compliance ◦When a person is forced to do something, little dissonance is aroused. ◦The person can rationalize the action by saying “I had no choice.” Effort justification ◦The greater the effort or sacrifice involved, the greater the dissonance. 20

Ways of Reducing Dissonance Rationalizing ◦which is not the same as being rational. Selective exposure ◦Paying attention only to information that supports the choice made. ◦Avoiding information that is inconsistent with the choice made. Polarization of alternatives ◦Exaggerating the differences between the alternatives once the choice is made. Any of the strategies for maintaining cognitive consistency ◦Denial ◦Bolstering ◦Differentiation ◦Transcendence ◦Modifying one or more cognitions ◦Communicating 21

Psychological Reactance Also known as “reverse psychology” Backlash: A perceived threat to one’s freedom produces a defensive reaction. Forbidden fruit: Outlawing something may make it even more attractive. Examples: ◦A pushy salesperson may drive customers away. ◦When restrictions are placed on firearms, firearm sales increase dramatically before the ban takes effect. ◦A parent who criticizes a daughter’s boyfriend may drive the daughter into the boyfriend’s arms. 22

Counterattitudinal Advocacy Playing “Devil’s Advocate”: Advocating a contrary position shifts one’s attitudes toward the contrary position. No external incentives should be present. ◦The advocacy should be volitional (not compelled). ◦The advocacy should be public (in writing or out loud). The person will internalize the choice to advocate the contrary position. The person’s attitudes will shift (partially) toward the contrary position. 23

Commitment Once we are committed to a course of action, it is hard to turn back. ◦A car owner may “throw good money after bad” making one repair after another. ◦Gamblers may double their bets every time they lose. Social customs are designed to increase commitments. ◦Wedding customs ◦Initiation rituals Commitments can grow legs. ◦People add additional justifications for their original decision. 24