L e c t u r e 3 In/definite Articles

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Indefinite and Definite Articles The use of indefinite and definite articles The use of indefinite and definite articles One of the most difficult tasks not only for the student of the English language but often even for native speakers. One of the most difficult tasks not only for the student of the English language but often even for native speakers. Although there are rules which define the use of articles, there are many exceptions to these rules, making the task difficult. Although there are rules which define the use of articles, there are many exceptions to these rules, making the task difficult.

Indefinite Article A) a/an The indefinite article use in a mana hat a university a European use in a mana hat a university a European a one-way street use an before words beginning with a vowel (a, e, i, o, u) use an before words beginning with a vowel (a, e, i, o, u) an applean islandan uncle an eggan onionan hour or individual letter SPOKEN with a vowel sound ! or individual letter SPOKEN with a vowel sound ! an L-platean MPan SOSan 'x‚ a/an is the same for all genders a/an is the same for all genders a mana womanan actoran actressa table

Indefinite Article B) The use of a/an 1 before a singular countable noun I need a visa. They live in a flat. He bought an ice-cream I need a visa. They live in a flat. He bought an ice-cream 2 before a singular countable noun used as and example of a class of things A car must be insured = All cars/Any car must be insured A car must be insured = All cars/Any car must be insured A child needs love = All children/Any child needs love A child needs love = All children/Any child needs love 3. With a noun complement, including names of professions It was an earthquake. She'll be a dancer. He is an actor. It was an earthquake. She'll be a dancer. He is an actor. 4. In certain expressions of quantity a lot ofa couple a lot ofa couple a great manya dozen (but one dozen is also possible) a great manya dozen (but one dozen is also possible) a great deal of a great deal of

Indefinite Article 5. With certain numbers a hundreda thousand a hundreda thousand –“one” may be used for emphasis: –“One thousand dollars?! That’s crazy!” Before half when half follows a whole number Before half when half follows a whole number 11/2 = one and a half kilos, or a kilo and a half 11/2 = one and a half kilos, or a kilo and a half a half-holidaya half-portiona half-share a half-holidaya half-portiona half-share With 1/3, ¼, 1/5 etc With 1/3, ¼, 1/5 etc a third a quartera fifth a third a quartera fifth

Indefinite Article 6. An expression of price, speed, ratio, etc Fifty crowns a metre Fifty crowns a metre Sixty km an hour Sixty km an hour 20 dollars a dozen. Four times a day 20 dollars a dozen. Four times a day 7. In exclamations before SINGULAR COUNTABLE nouns: Such a long queue! Such a long queue! What a pretty girl! What a pretty girl!BUT: Such long queues! Such long queues! Such pretty girls! Such pretty girls!

Definite Article Definite Article: the The definite article is used before singular and plural nouns when the noun is specific or particular. It indicates that the noun is definite, that it refers to a particular member of a group. For example: "The dog that bit me ran away." "The dog that bit me ran away." Here, we're talking about a specific dog, the dog that bit me. Here, we're talking about a specific dog, the dog that bit me. "I was happy to see the policeman who saved my cat!" "I was happy to see the policeman who saved my cat!" Here, we're talking about a particular policeman. Even if we don't know the policeman's name, it's still a particular policeman because it is the one who saved the cat. Here, we're talking about a particular policeman. Even if we don't know the policeman's name, it's still a particular policeman because it is the one who saved the cat. "I saw the elephant at the zoo." "I saw the elephant at the zoo." Here, we're talking about a specific noun. Probably there is only one elephant at the zoo, or somebody has already mentioned it in conversation. Here, we're talking about a specific noun. Probably there is only one elephant at the zoo, or somebody has already mentioned it in conversation.

Definite Article We also use the definite article when we mention something for the second time. e.g. I saw a student in the street. I saw a student in the street. The student carried a textbook. The student carried a textbook. The textbook was written by the same author as the one I had in my office. The textbook was written by the same author as the one I had in my office.

Definite Article We also use the definite article for unique things or people, eg. We also use the definite article for unique things or people, eg. –the Equator –the Pole the Queen the Queen –If you say “a queen,” you’re talking about the general thing: –“The wife of a king is a queen.” –But: “The Queen arrives tomorrow.” the Pope the Pope –“He was a good pope.” – there was more than one good one, and he was one of them –“He was the good pope.” – there was only one good pope.

Indefinite and Definite Article Countable and Uncountable Nouns The can be used with uncountable nouns, or the article can be omitted completely. The can be used with uncountable nouns, or the article can be omitted completely. "I love to sail over the water" (some specific body of water) or "I love to sail over water" (any water). "I love to sail over the water" (some specific body of water) or "I love to sail over water" (any water). "He spilled the milk all over the floor" (some specific milk, perhaps the milk you bought earlier that day, or the milk you just poured) "He spilled the milk all over the floor" (some specific milk, perhaps the milk you bought earlier that day, or the milk you just poured) or "He spilled milk all over the floor" (any milk). or "He spilled milk all over the floor" (any milk). "A/an" can be used only with countable nouns. "A/an" can be used only with countable nouns. "I need a bottle of water." "I need a bottle of water." "I need a new glass of milk." "I need a new glass of milk." Most of the time, you can't say, "She wants a water," unless you're implying, say, a bottle of water. Most of the time, you can't say, "She wants a water," unless you're implying, say, a bottle of water.

Geographical use of Definite Article There are some specific rules for using the with geographical nouns. Do not use the before: names of most countries/territories: names of most countries/territories: Italy, Mexico, Bolivia, Spain, England, Germany, Poland, China … Italy, Mexico, Bolivia, Spain, England, Germany, Poland, China … But in plural/collective names: the United Kingdom the United Kingdom the Netherlands the Netherlands the Philippines the Philippines the United States the United States

Geographical use of Definite Article We use ‘THE‘ with adjectives the Czech Republic the Czech Republic the Dominican Republic the Dominican Republic or: with political descriptions we use articles e.g. the People's Republic of China e.g. the People's Republic of China the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics the USSR with compass directions do not use 'The'; e.g. North Korea e.g. North Korea

Geographical use of Definite Article names of cities, towns, or states: names of cities, towns, or states: Prague, London, Moscow, Manitoba, Miami Prague, London, Moscow, Manitoba, Miami Major exception: the Hague names of streets: names of streets: Washington Blvd., Main St. High Street Washington Blvd., Main St. High Street names of lakes and bays: names of lakes and bays: Lake Titicaca, Lake Erie Lake Titicaca, Lake Erie except with a group of lakes like the Great Lakes except with a group of lakes like the Great Lakes names of single mountains: names of single mountains: Mount Everest, Mount Fuji Mount Everest, Mount Fuji except with ranges of mountains like except with ranges of mountains like the Andes, the Rockies, the Alps, the High Tatras the Andes, the Rockies, the Alps, the High Tatras or unusual names like the Matterhorn or unusual names like the Matterhorn

Geographical use of Definite Article Names of continents Names of continents Asia, Europe, Australia … Asia, Europe, Australia … names of islands names of islands Easter Island, Maui, Key West Easter Island, Maui, Key West except with island chains/groups: except with island chains/groups: like the Aleutians, like the Aleutians, the Hebrides the Hebrides the Canary Islands the Canary Islands

Geographical use of Definite Article Water bodies Water bodies the (River) Danube/Vltava/Volga the Mississippi (River) the (English) Channel the Panama Canal the Atlantic (Ocean) the Pacific (Ocean) the (River) Danube/Vltava/Volga the Mississippi (River) the (English) Channel the Panama Canal the Atlantic (Ocean) the Pacific (Ocean) the Mediterranean (Sea) the Mediterranean (Sea)

Definite Articles in Geography Deserts Deserts the Gobi (Desert) the Sahara (Desert) the Mojave Desert the Gobi (Desert) the Sahara (Desert) the Mojave Desert Points of the compass as indicators of location Points of the compass as indicators of location the north, the south, the east, the west the South Pole, the North Pole the north, the south, the east, the west the South Pole, the North Pole She lives in the south of Italy. Geoffrey is going to the Far East next spring. She lives in the south of Italy. Geoffrey is going to the Far East next spring. Points of the compass as indicators of direction from Points of the compass as indicators of direction from The wind is blowing from the west. The wind is blowing from the west.But: Points of the compass as indicators of direction to Points of the compass as indicators of direction to –We’re heading north –North America –Go west, young man!

Geographical use of Definite Article Some constellations and other heavenly bodies Some constellations and other heavenly bodies the Big Dipper the Pleiades the Cigar Galaxy (M82) the Crab Nebula the Big Dipper the Pleiades the Cigar Galaxy (M82) the Crab Nebula But (names of people rather than things): But (names of people rather than things): Orion Cassiopeia Orion Cassiopeia

Omission of articles Some common types of nouns that don't take an article are: Names of languages and nationalities: Names of languages and nationalities: Chinese, English, Spanish, Russian Chinese, English, Spanish, Russian (Though there’s an archaic usage, “Translated from the Czech by Josef Škvorecký.) Names of sports: volleyball, hockey, baseball Names of sports: volleyball, hockey, baseball Names of academic subjects: mathematics, biology, history, computer science Names of academic subjects: mathematics, biology, history, computer science

Test of geographical articles use Question 1: Question 1: Which is correct? Which is correct? a. Brazil is in the South America. Brazil is in the South America. Brazil is in the South America. b. Brazil is in an South America. Brazil is in an South America. Brazil is in an South America. c. Brazil is in a South America. Brazil is in a South America. Brazil is in a South America. d. Brazil is in South America. Brazil is in South America. Brazil is in South America.

Test Question 2: Which is correct? Question 2: Which is correct? a. I'm going to United States of America. I'm going to United States of America. I'm going to United States of America. b. I'm going to the United States of America. I'm going to the United States of America. I'm going to the United States of America. c. I'm going to a United States of America. I'm going to a United States of America. I'm going to a United States of America. d. I'm going to United States of Americas. I'm going to United States of Americas. I'm going to United States of Americas.

Test Question 3: Which is correct? Question 3: Which is correct? a. Shanghai is the largest city in China. b. The Shanghai is the largest city in China. c. A Shanghai is the largest city in China. a. Shanghai is the largest city in China. b. The Shanghai is the largest city in China. c. A Shanghai is the largest city in China.Shanghai is the largest city in China.The Shanghai is the largest city in China.A Shanghai is the largest city in China.Shanghai is the largest city in China.The Shanghai is the largest city in China.A Shanghai is the largest city in China. d. Shanghai is a largest city in China.

Test Question 4: Which is correct? Question 4: Which is correct? a. The Outlying Islands include Peng Chau and Cheung Chau. The Outlying Islands include Peng Chau and Cheung Chau. The Outlying Islands include Peng Chau and Cheung Chau. b. A Outlying Islands include Peng Chau and Cheung Chau. A Outlying Islands include Peng Chau and Cheung Chau. A Outlying Islands include Peng Chau and Cheung Chau. c. Outlying Islands include Peng Chau and Cheung Chau. Outlying Islands include Peng Chau and Cheung Chau. Outlying Islands include Peng Chau and Cheung Chau.

Test Question 5: Question 5: Which is correct? Which is correct? a. Mount Everest is the tallest mountain in China, the Himalayas and the world. Mount Everest is the tallest mountain in China, the Himalayas and the world. Mount Everest is the tallest mountain in China, the Himalayas and the world. b. The Mount Everest is the tallest mountain in China, the Himalayas and the world. The Mount Everest is the tallest mountain in China, the Himalayas and the world. The Mount Everest is the tallest mountain in China, the Himalayas and the world. c. Mount Everest is the tallest mountain in China, Himalayas and the world. Mount Everest is the tallest mountain in China, Himalayas and the world. Mount Everest is the tallest mountain in China, Himalayas and the world. d. Mount Everest is the tallest mountain in the China, the Himalayas and the world. Mount Everest is the tallest mountain in the China, the Himalayas and the world. Mount Everest is the tallest mountain in the China, the Himalayas and the world.

Test Question 6: Question 6: Which is correct? Which is correct? a. The largest lake in the world is the Lake Baikal in Russia. The largest lake in the world is the Lake Baikal in Russia. The largest lake in the world is the Lake Baikal in Russia. b. The largest lake in the world is Lake Baikal in Russia. The largest lake in the world is Lake Baikal in Russia. The largest lake in the world is Lake Baikal in Russia. c. The largest lake in the world is a Lake Baikal in Russia. The largest lake in the world is a Lake Baikal in Russia. The largest lake in the world is a Lake Baikal in Russia.

Test Question 7: Question 7: Which is correct? Which is correct? a. South China Sea is part of Pacific Ocean. South China Sea is part of Pacific Ocean. South China Sea is part of Pacific Ocean. b. A South China Sea is part of the Pacific Ocean. A South China Sea is part of the Pacific Ocean. A South China Sea is part of the Pacific Ocean. c. The South China Sea is part of the Pacific Ocean. The South China Sea is part of the Pacific Ocean. The South China Sea is part of the Pacific Ocean. d. The South China Sea is part of Pacific Ocean. The South China Sea is part of Pacific Ocean. The South China Sea is part of Pacific Ocean. e. South China Sea is part of the Pacific Ocean. South China Sea is part of the Pacific Ocean. South China Sea is part of the Pacific Ocean.

Adjective order Adjectives cannot be written in any order. Adjectives cannot be written in any order. There are rules, so you should use the following order: There are rules, so you should use the following order: Determiner or article Determiner or article –Determiners e.g. this, that, these, those, my, mine, your, yours, him, his, her, hers, they, their, Sam's ; or Articles - a, an, the Articles - a, an, the Opinion adjective e.g. polite, fun, cute, difficult, hard-working Opinion adjective e.g. polite, fun, cute, difficult, hard-working Size, including adjectives, comparatives and superlatives Size, including adjectives, comparatives and superlatives –height; e.g. tall, short, high, low; taller, tallest –width; e.g. wide, narrow, thin, slim; wider, widest –length; e.g. long, short; longer, longest –volume; e.g. fat, huge; fatter, fattest –volume; e.g. fat, huge; fatter, fattest

Adjective order Shape e.g. circular, oval, triangular, square, 5-sided, hexagonal, irregular Shape e.g. circular, oval, triangular, square, 5-sided, hexagonal, irregular Age e.g. new, young, adolescent, teenage, middle-aged, old, ancient Age e.g. new, young, adolescent, teenage, middle-aged, old, ancient Colour e.g. red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple, white, grey, black, black and white, light blue, dark red, pale blue, reddish brown, off-white, bright green, warm yellow Colour e.g. red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple, white, grey, black, black and white, light blue, dark red, pale blue, reddish brown, off-white, bright green, warm yellow Nationality e.g. Hong Kong, Chinese, English, American, Canadian, Japanese Nationality e.g. Hong Kong, Chinese, English, American, Canadian, Japanese

Adjective order Religion e.g. Christian, Buddhist, Taoist, Muslim, pagan, atheist Religion e.g. Christian, Buddhist, Taoist, Muslim, pagan, atheist Material e.g. wood, plastic, metal, ceramic, paper, silk Material e.g. wood, plastic, metal, ceramic, paper, silk Noun used as an adjective e.g. campus (as in 'campus activities') Noun used as an adjective e.g. campus (as in 'campus activities') The noun that the adjectives are describing The noun that the adjectives are describing

Adjective order Style: Although it is possible to write a sentence that uses all the categories; Although it is possible to write a sentence that uses all the categories; e.g. 'my beautiful, long, curving, new, pink, western, Christian, silk wedding dress', it is bad style as it is too long. Try to use less than five adjectives in a single list e.g. 'my beautiful, long, curving, new, pink, western, Christian, silk wedding dress', it is bad style as it is too long. Try to use less than five adjectives in a single list Therefore you could say Therefore you could say "Have you seen my beautiful new cream silk wedding dress? It's long and curving, and is in western Christian style." "Have you seen my beautiful new cream silk wedding dress? It's long and curving, and is in western Christian style."

WRITING ESSAYS WRITING ESSAYS your essay should tell your teacher you have understood the topic and that you can argue about the information your essay should tell your teacher you have understood the topic and that you can argue about the information you do not have to say anything new, but you must show you can describe and defend your opinion you do not have to say anything new, but you must show you can describe and defend your opinion you should present evidence to support your opinion so it is believed you should present evidence to support your opinion so it is believed be brief, you cannot say everything about a subject, but go into depth of just a little of the topic you write about be brief, you cannot say everything about a subject, but go into depth of just a little of the topic you write about

WRITING ESSAYS Introduction Introduction Your essay should contain: Your essay should contain: information about the topic information about the topic your opinion your opinion critical framework critical framework Body of the essay Body of the essay Several paragraphs which should contain: Several paragraphs which should contain: evidence, or your thoughts on the topic evidence, or your thoughts on the topic context - where does the evidence/thought come from (e.g. from the topic of your essay) context - where does the evidence/thought come from (e.g. from the topic of your essay) comment – how does the evidence fit your opinion? comment – how does the evidence fit your opinion? Conclusion Conclusion restate your argument restate your argument show the "pros" and "cons" (i.e. things or arguments in favour and arguments against) show the "pros" and "cons" (i.e. things or arguments in favour and arguments against)

WRITING ESSAYS HOMEWORK Write an essay on your home country or town or region. Why should someone come visit? Or not? The essay should have 300 words Deadline : 25 October 2010

WHAT IS PUNCTUATION ? … … … … … …

Punctuation: The use of standard marks and signs in writing and printing to separate words into : sentences sentences clauses clauses and phrases in order to clarify (= make more clear) their meaning. and phrases in order to clarify (= make more clear) their meaning.

Examples of punctuation:,,.. : : ; ; ’ ’ ) ( ) ( ] [ ] [ — — - - / / # #

Commas Separating parts of sentences Separating parts of sentences –Usage is somewhat flexible, generally corresponding to a slight pause in speech that doesn’t amount to a full end of a sentence. –Misuse of commas can lead to run-on sentences, structures that have more than subject-predicate.

Full stop (period) Its only use is to end a sentence. Its only use is to end a sentence. –In normal writing, the material from the previous full stop to the next one must make one full sentence. In writing that mimics conversation, you can have a fragment. In writing that mimics conversation, you can have a fragment. –“Do you want to go?” –“Not really.”

Colon and semi-colon A colon starts a list, where the items are separated by semi-colons (or sometimes commas). A colon starts a list, where the items are separated by semi-colons (or sometimes commas). –We have three goals: getting in; seizing the diamond; and getting out. A colon can also set off a single item that’s being emphasized. A colon can also set off a single item that’s being emphasized. –There’s one thing we care about: money.

Semi-colon A semi-colon can also be used to separate two structures that can each be a sentence but that you want to relate a little more closely. A semi-colon can also be used to separate two structures that can each be a sentence but that you want to relate a little more closely. –We won’t be coming on Saturday; we’ve heard the performance is horrid.

Apostrophe Used to form possessives Used to form possessives –This is Ondra’s hat. –I can see the ship’s mast. For a plural ending in “s”, the possessive apostrophe comes after the “s” For a plural ending in “s”, the possessive apostrophe comes after the “s” –It was the lady’s hat. (1 lady) –It was the ladies’ best luncheon. (more than 1 lady)

Apostrophe It’s also used in contractions, where it substitutes for one or more missing letters It’s also used in contractions, where it substitutes for one or more missing letters –It is  it’s –Did not  didn’t –Cannot (preferred to “can not”)  can’t –we had gone  we’d gone –You have finished  You’ve finished –You would like it  You’d like it –You had already left  You’d already left –We are happy  We’re happy

its vs. it’s Easy to confuse, because ’s often indicates possessive Easy to confuse, because ’s often indicates possessive –But the contraction of “it is” needs an apostrophe to show the missing space and “i” –The possessive “its” is formed like “hers,” “theirs,” “ours”: It’s our house It’s our house The house is ours The house is ours

Parentheses Sets off a side remark that could be dropped entirely and still leave a complete sentence Sets off a side remark that could be dropped entirely and still leave a complete sentence –The dogs are highly skilled. –The dogs (that were bred for sheep-herding) are highly skilled. –The dogs are highly skilled (they were bred for sheep-herding).

Square brackets Similar to parentheses in function, but their use is usually restricted to particular situations, such as citations in academic writing: Similar to parentheses in function, but their use is usually restricted to particular situations, such as citations in academic writing: –As demonstrated by previous research (Jones and Surowiecki [1998]), fish can swim.

em-dash Functions a lot like parentheses Functions a lot like parentheses –If the Fed were to moderately raise its inflation target—currently around two per cent—and commit itself to keeping prices moving higher for the next couple of years, it could help change this dynamic. Can also function somewhat like a colon for emphasis Can also function somewhat like a colon for emphasis –The dominant sentiment is caution—consumers are hesitant to spend, and businesses are hesitant to expand, invest, and hire.

en dash or hyphen Used to break a word across a line Used to break a word across a line –In English, the break has to come between a syllable syl-la-ble, not sy-ll-ab-le syl-la-ble, not sy-ll-ab-le Used to link words into compound words Used to link words into compound words –We use just-in-time delivery