FORGETTING & MEMORY CONSTRUCTION

Why do we forget? Forgetting can occur at any memory stage Retrieval from long-term memory Depending on interference, retrieval cues, moods, and motives, some things get retrieved, some don’t Long-term storage Some items are altered or lost Short-term memory A few items are both noticed and encoded Sensory memory The senses momentarily register amazing detail Forgetting can occur at any memory stage Hockenbury slides (Schulman) key words: forgetting

Forgetting as Storage Failure

Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909) German philosopher who did early memory studies with nonsense syllables Developed the forgetting curve, also called the “retention curve” or “Ebbinghaus curve”

The Forgetting Curve Hermann Ebbinghaus first began to study forgetting using nonsense syllables Nonsense syllables are three letter combinations that look like words but are meaningless (ROH, KUF)

Ebbinghaus’ Forgetting Curve Ebbinghaus found that the more times he practiced a list of nonsense syllables on day 1, the fewer repetitions he required to relearn it on day 2. Said simply, the more time we spend learning new information, the more we retain.

How to combat the Forgetting Curve: Overlearning Continuing to rehearse after the point the information has been learned Rehearsing past the point of mastery Helps ensure information will be available even under stress

Forgetting as retrieval failure Retrieval—process of accessing stored information Sometimes info IS encoded into LTM, but we can’t retrieve it Retrieval failure leads to forgetting Retrieval X Encoding Short-term memory Long-term Hockenbury slides (Schulman) key words: forgetting; retrieval; long-term memory

Tip of the tongue phenomenon TOT—involves the sensation of knowing that specific information is stored in long-term memory but being unable to retrieve it Can’t retrieve info that you absolutely know is stored in your LTM key words: forgetting; retrieval; long-term memory; tip of the tongue phenomenon

Recall vs. Recognition tests Recall tests - must retrieve info learned earlier. Two step process: 1) generate a mental list, 2) recognize the answer from your list. Examples: Fill-in-the-blank test; essay exams Recognition tests - only need to identify the correct answer. 1 step process: 1) recognize answer from the list. List was already generated for you. Example: Multiple choice tests key words: forgetting; retrieval; retrieval cues; recall; recognition

What is the capital of Vermont? Raise your hand if you know the answer key words: forgetting; retrieval; retrieval cues; recall

What is the capital of Vermont? A. Brattleboro B. Montpelier C. Rutland D. Cabot Raise your hand if you know the answer Which was easier: recall or recognition? For your psychology exam, would you rather have a fill-in-the-blank or a multiple choice test? key words: forgetting; retrieval; retrieval cues; recall; recognition

What is the capital of Vermont? A. Brattleboro B. Montpelier C. Rutland D. Cabot Raise your hand if you know the answer Which was easier: recall or recognition? For your psychology exam, would you rather have a fill-in-the-blank or a multiple choice test? key words: forgetting; retrieval; retrieval cues; recall; recognition

Retrieval Cue Theories Forgetting the result of using improper retrieval cues Retrieval cue failure – inability to recall LT memories because of inadequate or missing cues. Memories only appear to be forgotten. You are only lacking the right retrieval cue. key words: forgetting; retrieval; retrieval cues

Which retrieval cues work best? Context-dependent memory - improved ability to remember if tested in the same environment as the original learning environment Better recall if tested in classroom where you initially learned information If learning room smells of chocolate or mothballs, people will recall more info if tested in room with the same smell compared to different smell or no smell at all key words: forgetting; retrieval; retrieval cues; encoding specificity principle; context-dependent effects

State-dependent effects Recall improved if internal physiological or emotional state is the same during testing and initial encoding If you are in an altered state of consciousness you will be more likely to remember SOME/MORE things you learned or did when in that state than if asked to recall in another state. key words: forgetting; retrieval; retrieval cues; context-dependent effects; state-dependent effects

Mood Congruence Mood Congruence – Mood tends to evoke memories of when you were in that same mood. Positive mood will likely cause you to remember other times you were positive.

Mood Congruence effects Example: Bipolar depressives Info learned in manic state, recall more if testing done during manic state Info learned in depressed state, recall more if testing done during depressed state key words: forgetting; retrieval; retrieval cues; state-dependent effects; mood congruence

Memory Construction

Reconstructing Memories: Sources of Potential Errors – Why the details change over time Interference of new or old information can alter memories

Sources of Potential Errors Source Confusion – true source of the memory (how, when, & where it was acquired) is forgotten. False Memory – distorted and inaccurate memory that feels completely real and is often accompanied by all the emotional impact of a real memory.

Memory Jigsaw Analogy Memories, rather than being like a video tape, are formed as bits and pieces. People may retrieve only some of the pieces of the memory Brain fills in the blanks and doesn’t care if its right

Elizabeth Loftus Has found that subjects’ memories vary based on the wording of questions Demonstrated the misinformation effect

Misinformation Effect Incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event Affects eyewitness testimony Elizabeth Loftis explains her experiments on Misinformation/attribution effect.

Memory Distortion Memory can be distorted as people try to fit new info into existing schemas Giving misleading information after an event causes subjects to unknowingly distort their memories to incorporate the new misleading information Key words: eyewitness testimony; memory distortion; schemas

Loftus Experiment Subjects shown video of an accident between two cars Leading question: “About how fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?” Memory construction Subjects shown video of an accident between two cars Some subjects asked: How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other? Others asked: How fast were the cars going when they hit each other? Hockenbury slides (Schulman) Key words: eyewitness testimony; memory distortion; Loftus; misleading information

Loftus Results Word Used in Question Average Speed Estimate smashed collided bumped hit contacted 41 m.p.h. 39 m.p.h. 38 m.p.h. 34 m.p.h. 32 m.p.h. Hockenbury slides (Schulman)

Eyewitness Testimony Scripts—type of schema Mental organization of events in time Example of a classroom script: Come into class, sit down, talk to friends, bell rings, instructor begins to speak, take notes, bell rings again, leave class, etc. INFLUENCES memory Key words: eyewitness testimony; memory distortion; schemas; scripts

Eyewitness Testimony Not an exact replica of original events What you recall is a construction built and rebuilt from various sources Often fit memories into existing beliefs or schemas Schema—mental representation of an object, scene or event Example: schema of a countryside may include green grass, hills, farms, a barn, cows, etc. Key words: eyewitness testimony; memory distortion; schemas; scripts

Factors that Influence Memory

Memory Construction: Children’s Recall

Children’s Testimony on Abuse Research has shown children’s testimony to be unreliable Children are very open to suggestions As children mature their memories improve

Accurate Interviewing Methods To promote accuracy with children’s testimony the interviewer should: Phrase questions in a way the child can understand Have no prior contact with the child Use neutral language and do not lead or suggest answers

Forgetting Theories Encoding failure Interference theories Motivated forgetting Decay Hockenbury slides (Schulman) key words: forgetting; encoding; decay theories; interference theories; retrieval cues

Forgetting as Encoding Failure

Encoding Failures or You never remembered it in the first place! People fail to encode information because: It is unimportant to them It is not necessary to know the information A decrease in the brain’s ability to encode

Forgetting as encoding failure Info never encoded into LTM Encoding X Long-term memory Encoding failure leads to forgetting Short-term Hockenbury slides (Schulman) key words: forgetting; encoding

Which is the real penny? Hockenbury slides (Schulman) key words: forgetting; encoding

Answer Hockenbury slides (Schulman) key words: forgetting; encoding

Encoding Failures Even though you’ve seen thousands of pennies, you’ve probably never looked at one closely to encode specific features key words: forgetting; encoding

Forgetting as Retrieval Failure: Interference

Interference Theories “Memories interfering with memories” Forgetting NOT caused by mere passage of time Caused by one memory competing with or replacing another memory key words: forgetting; retrieval; interference theories

Two Types of Interference Retroactive Interference Proactive Hockenbury slides (Schulman) key words: forgetting; retrieval; interference theories;retroactive interference; proactive interference

Retroactive Interference When a NEW memory interferes with remembering OLD information Example: Learning a new language interferes with ability to remember old language Study French papier livre plume école Study Spanish papel libro pluma escuela French 101 Mid-term exam F- Hockenbury slides (Schulman) key words: forgetting; retrieval; interference theories; retroactive interference Notes: This is similar to an upcoming slide for proactive interference. The foreign language example can be used to demonstrate both retroactive and proactive interference, depending upon how you present it. Thus, examples of both are included. However, I generally only present only one of the two examples to avoid confusion for the students. For instance, I'll use the foreign language example for retroactive interference and the parking lot example for proactive interference. retroactive interference

Proactive Interference Opposite of retroactive interference When an OLD memory interferes with remembering NEW information Example: Memories of where you parked your car on campus the past week interferes with ability find car today ? Hockenbury slides (Schulman) key words: forgetting; retrieval; interference theories; proactive interference

Motivated Forgetting (I meant to forget it?) Undesired memory is held back from awareness Suppression—conscious forgetting Repression—unconscious forgetting (Freudian)

Repression Part of Freud’s psychoanalysis Process of moving anxiety-producing memories to the unconscious Supposed means of protecting oneself from painful memories Not well-supported by research; stressful incidents are actually more likely to be encoded

Decay Theories Memories fade away or decay gradually if unused Time plays critical role Ability to retrieve info declines with time after original encoding If unused, normal brain metabolic processes erode memory trace Average percentage of information retained 20 mins 1 hr 8 hrs 24 2 days 6 31 Interval between original learning of nonsense syllables and memory test 100% Hockenbury slides (Schulman) key words: forgetting; retrieval; decay theories

Amnesia Infantile – don’t accurately remember much of your childhood (2 & under) due to your hippocampus not being fully developed. Anterograde – injury that prevents new memories from forming Retrograde – injury that prevents memory from before the trauma (severe cases effect years of memory; most cases are of moments or hours before trauma)