© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill These PowerPoint slides have been designed for use by students and instructors using the Anthropology: The Exploration of Human Diversity textbook by Conrad Kottak. These files contain short outlines of the content of the chapters, as well as selected photographs, maps, and tables. Students may find these outlines useful as a study guide or a tool for review. Instructors may find these files useful as a basis for building their own lecture slides or as handouts. Both audiences will notice that many of the slides contain more text than one would use in a typical oral presentation, but it was felt that it would be better to err on the side of a more complete outline in order to accomplish the goals above. Both audiences should feel free to edit, delete, rearrange, and rework these files to build the best personalized outline, review, lecture, or handout for their needs. Using These Slides

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill Student CD-ROM—this fully interactive student CD-ROM is packaged free of charge with every new textbook and features the following unique tools: How To Ace This Course: Animated book walk-through Expert advice on how to succeed in the course (provided on video by the University of Michigan) Learning styles assessment program Study skills primer Internet primer Guide to electronic research Chapter-by-Chapter Electronic Study Guide: Video clip from a University of Michigan lecture on the text chapter Interactive map exercise Chapter objectives and outline Key terms with an audio pronunciation guide Self-quizzes (multiple choice, true/false, and short-answer questions with feedback indicating why your answer is correct or incorrect) Critical thinking essay questions Internet exercises Vocabulary flashcards Chapter-related web links Cool Stuff: Interactive globe Study break links Contents of Student CD-ROM

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill Student’s Online Learning Center—this free web-based student supplement features many of the same tools as the Student CD-ROM (so students can access these materials either online or on CD, whichever is convenient), but also includes: An entirely new self-quiz for each chapter (with feedback, so students can take two pre-tests prior to exams) Career opportunities Additional chapter-related readings Anthropology FAQs PowerPoint lecture notes Monthly updates Contents of Online Learning Center

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill ChapChaptteerrChapChaptteerrter 13 This chapter introduces students to the study of linguistics. It discusses the differences between animal and human communication, the basic categories and definitions used to study language, and the many ways in which language, culture, and social action intersect. Language and Communication

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill Introduction  Language is our primary means of communication.  Language is transmitted through learning, as part of enculturation.  Language is based on arbitrary, learned associations between words and the things they represent.  Only humans have the linguistic capacity to discuss the past and future in addition to the present.  Anthropologists study language in its social and cultural context.

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill Call Systems  Call systems consist of a limited number of sounds that are produced in response to specific stimuli (e.g. food or danger)  Calls cannot be combined to produce new calls.  Calls are reflexive in that they are automatic responses to specific stimuli.  Although primates use call systems, their vocal tract is not suitable for speech. Apes, such as these Congo chimpanzees, use call systems to communicate in the wild Photo Credit: Michael Nichols/Magnum Photos

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill Call Systems HUMAN LANGUAGEPRIMATE CALL SYSTEMS has the capacity to speak of things and events that are not present (Displacement) are stimuli dependent, the food call will only be made in the presence of food, it cannot be “faked” possesses the capacity to generate new expressions by combining other expressions (Productivity) consist of a limited number of calls that cannot be combined to produce new calls is group specific in that all humans possess the capacity for language, but each linguistic community has its own language are species specific as there is little to no variation between communities of the same species for each call Contrasts between human language and a primate call system:

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill Sign Language  A few nonhuman primates have been able to learn to use American Sign Language (ASL).  Washoe, a chimpanzee, eventually acquired a vocabulary of over 100 ASL signs.  Lucy, another chimpanzee, lived in a foster family until she was introduced to the “wild” where she was killed by poachers.  Koko, a gorilla, regularly uses 400 ASL signs and has used 700 at least once.

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill Sign Language  These nonhuman primates have displayed some “human- like” capacities with ASL.  Joking and lying  Cultural transmission: they have tried to teach ASL to other animals  Productivity: they have combined two or more signs to create a new expressions  Displacement: the ability to talk about things that are not present

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill Sign Language  The experiments with ASL demonstrate that chimps and gorillas have a rudimentary capacity for language.  It is important to remember that these animals were taught ASL by humans.  There are no known instances where chimps or gorillas in the wild have developed a comparable system of signs on their own.

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill The Origin of Language  The human capacity for language developed over hundreds of thousands of years, as call systems were transformed into language.  Language is a uniquely effective vehicle for learning that enables humans to adapt more rapidly to new stimuli than other primates.

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill Nonverbal Communication  Kinesics is the study of communication through body movements, stances, gestures and facial expressions.  Odors also play an important role in nonverbal communication.

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill The Structure of Language  The scientific study of spoken language involves several levels of organization: phonology, morphology, lexicon, and syntax.  Phonology is the study of the sounds use in speech.  Morphology studies the forms in which sounds are grouped in speech.  A language’s lexicon is a dictionary containing all of the smallest units of speech that have a meaning (morpheme).  Syntax refers to the rules that order words and phrases into sentences.

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill Speech Sounds  In any given language, phonemes are the smallest sound contrasts that distinguish meaning (they carry no meaning themselves).  Phones are the sounds made by humans that might act as phonemes in any given language.  Phonetics is the study of human speech sounds, phonemics is the study of phones as they act in a particular language.  Phonemics studies only the significant sound contrasts of a given language.

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill Speech Sounds Vowel phonemes in standard American English. Source: Adaptation of excerpt and figure 2-1 from Aspects of Language, third edition, by Donald Bollinger and Donald Sears, copyright © 1981 by Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc. reprinted by permission of the publisher.

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill Language, Thought, and Culture  Chomsky argues that the universal grammar is finite, and the fact that any language is translatable to any other language is taken to be evidence supporting this claim.  The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: Sapir and Whorf are described as early advocates of the view that different languages imply different ways of thinking (e.g., Palaung vs. English, Hopi speculative tense).

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill Focal Vocabulary  Lexical elaboration that corresponds to an activity or item that is culturally central is called a focal vocabulary.  It is argued that, while language, thought, and culture are interrelated, change is more likely to move from culture to language, rather than the reverse.

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill Focal Vocabulary Elements of HockeyInsiders' Term biscuitpuck pipesthe goal/net sin binpenalty box twighockey stick buckethelmet five holespace between a goalie’s leg pads Focal vocabulary for hockey:

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill Meaning  Semantics “refers to a language’s meaning system.”  Ethnoscience, or ethnosemantics, is the study of linguistic categorization of difference, such as in classification systems, taxonomies, and specialized terminologies (such as astronomy and medicine).

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill Sociolinguistics  Sociolinguistics is the study of the relation between linguistic performance and the social context of that performance.  The notion that linguistic variation is a product of constantly ongoing general forces for change is called linguistic uniformitarianism.

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill Linguistic Diversity  The ethnic and class diversity of nation-states is mirrored by linguistic diversity.  Single individuals may change the way they talk depending upon the social requirements of a given setting—this is called style shifting.  Diglossia is the regular shifting from one dialect to another (e.g., high and low variants of a language) by members of a single linguistic population.  Linguistic relativity says that no language is superior to any other as a means of communication.

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill Gender Speech Contrasts  In America and England, there regular differences between men’s speech and women’s speech that cut across sub- cultural boundaries.  The fact that women in these populations tend to speak a more “standard” dialect and use fewer “power” words is attributed to women’s lack of socioeconomic power.

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill Gender Speech Contrasts Upper Middle Class Lower Middle Class Upper Working Class Lower Working Class Male Female Multiple negation (“I don’t want none”) according to gender and class (in percentages): Source: From Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society by Peter Trugill (London: Pelican Books, 1974, revised edition 1983), p. 85, copyright © Peter Trugill, 1974, Reproduced by permission of the publisher.

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill Stratification & Symbolic Domination  In situations where social stratification exists, the dialect of the dominant strata is considered “standard” and valued more than the dialects of the lower strata.  Sociolinguistic studies have indicated that status-linked dialects affect the economic and social prospects of the people who speak them, a situation to which Bourdieu applies the term, symbolic capital.  According to Bourdieu, overall societal consensus that one dialect is more prestigious results in “symbolic domination.”

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill Black English Vernacular (BEV)  Most linguists view BEV as a dialect of American English, with roots in southern English.  William Labov writes that BEV is the “relatively uniform dialect spoken by the majority of black youth in most parts of the US today…”  BEV has its own complex system of linguistic rules, it is not an unstructured selection of words and phrases.  BEV speakers do not pronounce intervocalic r’s.  BEV speakers use copula deletion to eliminate the verb to be from their speech.  Standard English is not superior in terms of ability to communicate ideas, but it is the prestige dialect.

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill Historical Linguistics  Historical linguistics studies the long-term variation of speech by studying protolanguages and daughter languages.  Anthropologists are interested in historical linguistics because cultural features sometimes correlate with the distribution of language families.

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill Historical Linguistics A family tree of the Indo-European languages.

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill Cyberspace  Terms  Cyberspace: that part of the world which is navigable by computer.  AIT: (Advanced Information Technology) the high technology communications environment that has given rise to cyberspace.  AIT as a medium has allowed for the creation of transnational affinity groups and also created means by which populations have begun to resist the pressure of authoritarian governments.  These groups and others that are formed around different sorts of interest, as well as the nature of relations among these groups and with the rest of the world, are rapidly becoming the subject of anthropological inquiry.  Transecting groups create direct communication channels between groups that previously had, or otherwise have, trouble communicating—e.g., physicians and patients.

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill Cyberspace  Access to cyberspace is not equal.  Poverty and underdevelopment limit access to cyberspace for some populations.  Some governments use artificially high costs to limit the connectivity of ordinary people.  Class also affects access in the United States, although this is mitigated somewhat by the existence of public access computers.  While class has not been eliminated entirely from cyberspace, some of the markers of class are not as functional—for example, language/writing style in cyberspace is marked by informality.

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill Cyberspace  Recent studies have shown that the marking of class and gender still exists, and that some of the gendered dynamics born outside of cyberspace are carried on within it.  One area wherein inequality has persisted is in the delivery of the latest high technology equipment to schools, which consistently reflects class and race bias, as well as socioeconomic inequality.  “Netiquette” is the term applied to uses and styles deemed appropriate and polite in cyberspace communication (such as the avoidance of using all capitol letters, which connotes strong emotion or “shouting”).

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill Cyberspace Elitism and Gate-keeping Cyberspace:  As access and interest have increased the numbers of people using the internet, “Old Guard” vs. “New Guard” elitism has developed.  As use has broadened, problematic and criminal practices on the internet have also increased, generating a corresponding interest in the regulation of such communication (e.g., laws against pornography on the internet).  There are also techniques employed by ordinary users and sysops (“systems operators”) to prevent and punish transgression of various ilk.  Kottak applies the term “gatekeepers” to people who enforce the various regulations and norms of internet communication.

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill Cyberspace  There is a fluidity of social reality in cyberspace.  The various uses of cyberspace and computer technology have generated a whole new realm of ways to manipulate one’s identity (e.g., role-playing games, presenting various selves in course of cyberspace conversations, etc.).  The relationship between cyberspace behavior and behavior in “face-to-face” communities is under investigation.