Surveying Cameroon English: evidence from previous research Daniel A. Nkemleke Department of English Guest Scholar, University of Massachusetts, at Boston (2009/2010)

University of Massachusetts, Boston Daniel A. Nkemleke2 Outline 1. Introduction: situating Cameroon 2. Defining Cameroon English 3. Foci of Cameroon English 4. Approaches to Cameroon English 5. Some features of Cameroon English 6. Conclusion: Future perspectives

University of Massachusetts, Boston Daniel A. Nkemleke3 1.Introduction: situating Cameroon A Central African country, with a population of about 20 million (roughly French 80 % English 20 %??) A Central African country, with a population of about 20 million (roughly French 80 % English 20 %??) A Former British, French and German colony, but which has adopted French and English as official languages, along sides 248 indigenous languages, a lingua franca (Cameroon Pidgin English), and an emerging urban language- Camfranglais (English + French + indigenous languages) A Former British, French and German colony, but which has adopted French and English as official languages, along sides 248 indigenous languages, a lingua franca (Cameroon Pidgin English), and an emerging urban language- Camfranglais (English + French + indigenous languages)

University of Massachusetts, Boston Daniel A. Nkemleke4 Introduction: situating Cameroon, con‘t The first university was created in 1963, and in 1992 five others were added. Recently, another one was created in the Far North Region of the country and in the North West The first university was created in 1963, and in 1992 five others were added. Recently, another one was created in the Far North Region of the country and in the North West There are a number of private universities run by various church groups and individuals There are a number of private universities run by various church groups and individuals

University of Massachusetts, Boston Daniel A. Nkemleke5 Introduction: situating Cameroon, con‘t The Anglophone sub-system of education was designed following the British system (formally London GCE Ordinary and Advanced Levels): The Anglophone sub-system of education was designed following the British system (formally London GCE Ordinary and Advanced Levels): 5 years of secondary school, 2 years of high school, 3 years of university studies (general education: GCE O/L, GCE A/L, BA/BSC Degree) 5 years of secondary school, 2 years of high school, 3 years of university studies (general education: GCE O/L, GCE A/L, BA/BSC Degree) technical education (largely French-oriented) technical education (largely French-oriented)

University of Massachusetts, Boston Daniel A. Nkemleke6 2. Defining Cameroon English Cameroon English has been defined in terms of its reliance on orality and contact with Pidgin English, in terms of the level of education of its accepted users, in relation to its accepted regional speakers, the functions, especially formal and official, for which it is used, the institutional settings in which it operates, and the extent of its indigenization within the Cameroonian ecology. Cameroon English has been defined in terms of its reliance on orality and contact with Pidgin English, in terms of the level of education of its accepted users, in relation to its accepted regional speakers, the functions, especially formal and official, for which it is used, the institutional settings in which it operates, and the extent of its indigenization within the Cameroonian ecology.

University of Massachusetts, Boston Daniel A. Nkemleke7 Defining Cameroon English, con‘t The following questions have confronted researchers, who have sought to define what Cameroon English really is: The following questions have confronted researchers, who have sought to define what Cameroon English really is: Is Cameroon English a continuum from CPE to educated English or ethnic varieties or accents to educated English, or a stable system with identifiable features? Is Cameroon English a continuum from CPE to educated English or ethnic varieties or accents to educated English, or a stable system with identifiable features?

University of Massachusetts, Boston Daniel A. Nkemleke8 Defining Cameroon English, con‘t Does Cameroon English have a Standard? Does Cameroon English have a Standard? Are there a set of accepted users and functions? Are there a set of accepted users and functions? Which accents are acceptable in Cameroon English? Which accents are acceptable in Cameroon English? Are there speakers who could be considered reference points of what is correct or incorrect in the variety of English spoken in Cameroon? Are there speakers who could be considered reference points of what is correct or incorrect in the variety of English spoken in Cameroon?

University of Massachusetts, Boston Daniel A. Nkemleke9 3. Foci of Cameroon English  classification of indigenous languages (e.g. Ardener 1956)  bilingualism and multilingualism (e.g. Fonlon 1963, Mbassi-Manga 1964)

University of Massachusetts, Boston Daniel A. Nkemleke10 Foci of Cameroon English con‘t  the so-called ‘language problem’ in Cameroon (e.g. Ngijol 1964, Fonlon 1969)  structure and status of Pidgin English (e.g. Schneider 1960, 1963, Kerkvliet 1957)

University of Massachusetts, Boston Daniel A. Nkemleke11 Foci of Cameroon English, con‘t spotlight on the status, Standards, distinctive features, and accents of English in Cameroon (Todd, 1982 a, b) spotlight on the status, Standards, distinctive features, and accents of English in Cameroon (Todd, 1982 a, b) Pidgin English research (Mbangwana, 1983) Pidgin English research (Mbangwana, 1983)

University of Massachusetts, Boston Daniel A. Nkemleke12 Foci of Cameroon English, con‘t present: a second generation of scholars present: a second generation of scholars Cameroon English phonology (Simo Bobda, 1994, 1997, 2000, 2006, 2007, 2010; Tamfu, 1989; Atechi, 2006) Cameroon English phonology (Simo Bobda, 1994, 1997, 2000, 2006, 2007, 2010; Tamfu, 1989; Atechi, 2006) General usage problems (Simo Bobda, 2002, post- graduate dissertations) General usage problems (Simo Bobda, 2002, post- graduate dissertations)

University of Massachusetts, Boston Daniel A. Nkemleke13 Foci of Cameroon English, con‘t  Camfranglais (Kouega, 2003)  Pragmatics, syntax, interferences, sociolinguistics, ELT (Mbangwana, 1991, 1992, 1993; Mforteh 2006, 2007; Nkemleke 2004, 2006; Sala, 2003, 2010, Wolf, 2001)

University of Massachusetts, Boston Daniel A. Nkemleke14 Foci of Cameroon English, con‘t  Corpus linguistics (Tiomajou 1993; Nkemleke 2003, 2004 a, b, 2005, 2007, 2008 a, b, 2009)

University of Massachusetts, Boston Daniel A. Nkemleke15 4. Approaches to Cameroon English Approach Major works & exponents Core issues English studies (Anglistic) approach Mbassi-Manga (1973), Todd (1982) Simo Bobda and Mbangwana (1993) Analyzing CamE from monolingual English perspective Interference approach Masanga (1983), Tamfuh (1989), Song (1996), Sala (1999), Fonyuy (2003) Show how indigenous languages /French have influence acquisition and production of English in formal and informal situations

University of Massachusetts, Boston Daniel A. Nkemleke16 Approaches to Cameroon English, con‘t Approach Major works & exponents Core issues Error analysis (SLA) approach Bafuh (1988), Anchimbe (1998), Simo Bobda (1994) Identify and correct errors in the use of English Feature analysis approach Nkemleke (2006) Talla Sando (2006) Anchimbe (2009) Identify and describe distinct features of CamE

University of Massachusetts, Boston Daniel A. Nkemleke17 Approaches to Cameroon English, con‘t Approach Major works & exponents Core issues Language planning approach Ayafor (2001), Atechi (2006, 2008), Sala (2006), Simo Bobda (2006) Ensure English has equal status with French or call for the codification of CamE Theory or analytical framework design approach Simo Bobda (1994), Sala (2003), Anchimbe (2006), Wolf (2008) Design new theories for study of CamE and other New Englishes

University of Massachusetts, Boston Daniel A. Nkemleke18 Approaches to Cameroon English, con‘t Approach Major works & exponents Core issues Creole & Pidgin studies Mbassi-Manga (1973) Describe CamE as a mixed language, simplification strategies used by speakers Social interaction, pragmatics approach Anchimbe (2008), Talla (2006), Mforteh (2006)Nkemleke (2007, 2008) Choices in use of English, politeness phenomena

University of Massachusetts, Boston Daniel A. Nkemleke19 Approches to Cameroon English, con‘t Approach Major works & exponents Core issues Sociology of language approach Language decay, linguistic identities, English as tool for social stratification Lexicography approach Kouega (2007, 2008), Hagen (1908), Schneider (1960) Writing of dictionaries and encyclopedias of CamE

University of Massachusetts, Boston Daniel A. Nkemleke20 Approaches to Cameroon English, con‘t Approach Major works & exponents Core issues Corpus-based approach Nkemleke (2003, 2004 a, b., 2005, 2007, 2008 a, b, 2009 Quantifying features of Cameroon English, and comparing with other corpora

University of Massachusetts, Boston Daniel A. Nkemleke21 5. Some features of Cameroon English Lexical peculiarities owing to contextualization Lexical peculiarities owing to contextualization ( “ frnchificaation“ of the lexcicon) “ bon de caisse” (pay voucher) “arrété” (decree) “bordereau” (mail enclosure slip) “chargé de mission” (government official) “Concours” (competitive examination) “Crédit foncier” (estate bank) “Mandat” (money order) “Rappel” (arrears)

University of Massachusetts, Boston Daniel A. Nkemleke22 Some features of Cameroon English, con‘t  Lexical peculiarities owing to contextualization (nativization of the lexicon) ( to) eat sb. (fixed expression). Definition: ‘to cause sb. to get sick or die by means of witchcraft in order to take the person’s life forces, i.e., to become rich’. Text example: The mother was suspected to have eaten her own child. Underlying conceptualizations: witchcraft is eating, people are resources [target domains  witchcraft,  people] [source domains  resources,  eating]. (Source: Wolf, 2001)

University of Massachusetts, Boston Daniel A. Nkemleke23 Some features of Cameroon English, con‘t (to) eat money (fixed expression). Definition: ‘to extort money from sb.’, ‘to use somebody else’s money’, ‘to waste money’, ‘to embezzle money’. Text example: How many million promises can fill a bucket when you eat money the way locusts eat tons of green. Underlying conceptualizations: money is food, being corrupt is eating, being in power is being able to eat [target domains  resources,  corruption] [source domain  eating]. (Source: Wolf 2001) (to) eat money (fixed expression). Definition: ‘to extort money from sb.’, ‘to use somebody else’s money’, ‘to waste money’, ‘to embezzle money’. Text example: How many million promises can fill a bucket when you eat money the way locusts eat tons of green. Underlying conceptualizations: money is food, being corrupt is eating, being in power is being able to eat [target domains  resources,  corruption] [source domain  eating]. (Source: Wolf 2001)

University of Massachusetts, Boston Daniel A. Nkemleke24 Some features of Cameroon English, con‘t kola (n.). Definition: 1. ‘fruit used as a stimulant, often offered as gift to guests’ (Cola acuminata and Cola epidonta). 2. ‘corruption, bribe; money.’ Text example: He therefore tells the Chief of Manawhoneybee village that his... name can only go on the radio if [he] brought something; and of course, the chief gives him money (kola). Underlying conceptualizations: money is food, a bribe is a gift, being in power is being able to eat [target domains  resources,  corruption] [source domain  eating,  gift giving]. (Source: Wolf 2001) kola (n.). Definition: 1. ‘fruit used as a stimulant, often offered as gift to guests’ (Cola acuminata and Cola epidonta). 2. ‘corruption, bribe; money.’ Text example: He therefore tells the Chief of Manawhoneybee village that his... name can only go on the radio if [he] brought something; and of course, the chief gives him money (kola). Underlying conceptualizations: money is food, a bribe is a gift, being in power is being able to eat [target domains  resources,  corruption] [source domain  eating,  gift giving]. (Source: Wolf 2001)

University of Massachusetts, Boston Daniel A. Nkemleke25 Some features of Cameroon English, con‘t thick madame (fixed expression). Definition: ‘wealthy, influential woman’. Text example:... simply trying to go to where… a “thick madame” with strong connections can send them [criminals] back to “work” just with a couple of phone calls? Underlying conceptualization: being important is being big, being big is being important,[1] being rich is being big, enrichment is eating [target domains  resources, material wealth, power] [source domain  physical size]. (Source: Wolf, 2001) thick madame (fixed expression). Definition: ‘wealthy, influential woman’. Text example:... simply trying to go to where… a “thick madame” with strong connections can send them [criminals] back to “work” just with a couple of phone calls? Underlying conceptualization: being important is being big, being big is being important,[1] being rich is being big, enrichment is eating [target domains  resources, material wealth, power] [source domain  physical size]. (Source: Wolf, 2001)[1]

University of Massachusetts, Boston Daniel A. Nkemleke26 Some features of Cameroon English, con‘t makalapati (makala pati). (n.). Source language: Duala, Basaa (makala), Ewondo (mekali). Definition: 1. ‘a sort of doughnut’ 2. ‘a bribe’. Text example: For sure, we shall still fight to end the makalapati. Underlying conceptualization: a bribe is food, being in power is being able to eat [target domains  resources,  corruption]. (Source: Wolf, 2001) makalapati (makala pati). (n.). Source language: Duala, Basaa (makala), Ewondo (mekali). Definition: 1. ‘a sort of doughnut’ 2. ‘a bribe’. Text example: For sure, we shall still fight to end the makalapati. Underlying conceptualization: a bribe is food, being in power is being able to eat [target domains  resources,  corruption]. (Source: Wolf, 2001)

University of Massachusetts, Boston Daniel A. Nkemleke27 Some features of Cameroon English, con‘t (Modals) ModalCCELOB will3,2502,804 would1,8543,002 may1,3661,323 might can2,0352,141 could9181,744 shall should1,5371,285 must1,3681,131 Total12,94314,557

University of Massachusetts, Boston Daniel A. Nkemleke28 Some features of Cameroon English, con‘t (Central modals: CCE vs LOB corpus) Modal CCE % LOB % will would may might can could shall should11.9*8.8 must Total

University of Massachusetts, Boston Daniel A. Nkemleke29 Some features of Cameroon English, con‘t (Primary vs. tentative forms) FormsModalsCCELOB Primarywillcanmayshall7,0646,620 Tentativewouldcouldmightshould4,5116,806 Freq. difference „ 2,553 >P 2,553 >P 186 >T

University of Massachusetts, Boston Daniel A. Nkemleke30 Some features of Cameroon English, con’t (Sementic functions of central modals)

University of Massachusetts, Boston Daniel A. Nkemleke31 Some features of Cameroon English, con’t (Adjectival expressions of modality)

University of Massachusetts, Boston Daniel A. Nkemleke32 Some features of Cameroon English, con’t (Modal lexical verbs expression of modality)

University of Massachusetts, Boston Daniel A. Nkemleke33 6. Conclusion: Corpus linguistics, the future ?? The Corpus of Cameroon English ( ) The Corpus of Cameroon English ( ) ICE-CAM on-going (since 2008… ICE-CAM on-going (since 2008… Written (400,000 words) Written (400,000 words) Spoken component (100,000 words) Spoken component (100,000 words)

University of Massachusetts, Boston Daniel A. Nkemleke34 END THANK YOU FOR LISTENING !