Interviewing

“… far from being merely a source of data, these interviews are dynamic social interactions wherein multiple dialogues are conducted between multiple selves….. Because interviews are epistemologically ambiguous, morally ambivalent and emotionally charged they cannot be seen as repositories of ‘objective facts’ …. “ (Collins, 1998) Interviews

RESEARCH METHODS AND PARTICIPANTS RESEARCH METHODS AND PARTICIPANTS Interviews were conducted in the spring and summer of 1999 with a total of 43 participants. The interviews were one to two hours in length, were semi-structured following an interview guide, were held in participants' offices, were tape-recorded and were later transcribed and coded inductively. Using formal individual informed consent processes interviewees gave their consent to reflect on these issues on tape as a contribution to the research. A draft of the full report was circulated to the interviewees for their feedback. Interviews Taken from a research paper on the ethics of interviewing Source:

Planning strategies  The purpose  The agenda  Preliminary questions  Structuring the interview  Planning the setting  Anticipating problems  Piloting  Analysis of the data?

Guiding ethical principles  Respect for:  human dignity  free and informed consent  vulnerable persons  privacy and confidentiality  justice and inclusiveness  Balancing harms and benefits  Minimising harms  Maximising benefits

The law  privacy  confidentiality  intellectual property  competence  data storage  Regulates the standards and conduct of research involving people in a variety of ways:

Confidentiality  Clearly explain who you are and who you represent.  Explain the ‘limits’ to the confidentiality which will be accorded to any data collected.  Ensure the respondent understands fully the extent to which his / her responses will be ‘published’.  Clearly explain objectives in carrying out the research;  What is it for and why you are doing it.  Ensure the respondent knows who is sponsoring the research  When and where and how it will be disseminated.  Do not try to mislead the respondent in any way.

What sort of interview?  Structured interview  Survey interview  Counselling interview  Diary interview  Life history interview  Ethnographic interview  Informal / unstructured interview  Conversation  Focus group

Face-to-face interviewing "Interviews.... are appropriate methods when:  it is necessary to understand the constructs....and beliefs about a particular matter  one aim is to develop an understanding of the respondents 'world' they are also useful when:  the logic of a situation is not clear  the subject matter is highly confidential  the interviewee may be reluctant to be truthful...." (Easterby-Smith et al, 1991)

Face-to-face interviewing "..a two-person conversation initiated by the interviewer for the specific purpose of obtaining research relevant information and focused.... on content specified by research objectives of systematic description, prediction or explanation."

Approaches to interview methods PositivisticQualitative standardised questions facts about the world beliefs about facts feelings and motives present or past behaviour standards of action conscious reasons exploratory understanding meanings - issues - situations in context not structured in advance open up new dimensions vivid inclusive accounts based on personal experience Highly disciplined - no real opportunity for freedom of action Highly skilled in the conduct of interviewing in order to help respondents explore beliefs

Structured interviews Researcher comprehends the purpose and goal of each question Necessarily positivistic Predetermined questions Standardised Quantitative analytical methods Interviewer training "Structure from.... unstructured" - a multi-tiered approach

A pollster’s approach……! Standardised questions All questions designed prior to interview Fixed sequence Fixed wording Standard conditions for interview administration Non-directive Non-exploratory

Unstructured interviews No planned sequence of questions Aim is to 'surface' preliminary issues Identify critical topics for more structured approaches Broad, open ended questions Questions vary to suit respondent

Assumptions about the respondent Motivated Intellectually competent Linguistically competent Capable of resolving 'problems' through non-directive, non-biasing interventions by interviewer technically competent Of all sources of bias, it is the respondent who poses the greatest threat to measurement accuracy Adequacy ultimately relies on respondents goodwill to retain consensus with the interviewer

Tips for interacting with respondents  Probe only non-directively  Volunteer clarification if necessary  Repeat the question if necessary  Don’t give directive information as to question meaning  Don’t give unrelated information  Thank the respondent for his / her time and interest

Interviewer-respondent rapport Make respondent comfortable Clarify purpose and invite questions Seek to generate trust - confidentiality - neutrality - openness Clearly explain why respondent was 'chosen' Adopt conducive attitude (sincere, sensitive, non-evaluative)

Interviewer credibility Relevance and value Professionalism Knowledge Skills Confidence Enthusiasm

Questioning Techniques 'Funnelling' - broad to narrow themes Unbiased questions Probing Clarification of issues 'Helping' respondent think through issues Taking notes / tape recording

Probes Basic probe Explanatory probes Focused probes 'Silent' probe Drawing out Giving ideas or suggestions Mirroring or reflecting Use of metaphor

Non-directive probes – open questioning Anything else? Can you tell me more about it? Can you tell me of any other reason? Can you explain this a little more? Can you be more specific? Why do you feel that way? Tell me more about your thinking on that? Why is this? Are there any other issues involved?

Dealing with the answers……..  Record what the respondent said  Don't answer for him / her  Show an interest in the answers given  Make sure you have understood the answer adequately  Make sure the answer is adequate  Don’t show approval or censure

Dealing with respondent ‘problems’ Tell ME!! Repeat question if asked to do so Clarify non-directively if asked to do so If given an inadequate answer or 'half-hearted' refusal, try to obtain adequacy or discuss refusal through; Accept 'firm' refusal - non-directive probing - non-directive clarification - repeat of question / instruction

Interview Bias  Open questions may help to avoid bias  Danger of overtly imposing interviewers frame of reference  A problem for structured interviewing - they are situational - non-participatory - varying levels of trust & rapport - settings vary

Any Questions?