Philosophy

Philosophy Philo (love) + sophia (wisdom) Philosophy is the love (or pursuit) of wisdom Wisdom is good judgment So, philosophy is the love (or pursuit) of good judgment Thales

Wonder Philosophy begins in wonder At the world At what we do At our nature Wonder —> reflection —> critical examination Buddha at Wei, China

Metaphysics The study of what there is What is the world made of? What kinds of things are there? What is real? What is merely apparent? What am I? Laozi

Epistemology The theory of knowledge How do I know? What is knowledge? Can I have knowledge of anything at all? If so, where do I get it? Can I know anything independently of experience, through philosophical reflection alone? Ruins at Nalanda, India, site of university at which Gautama, Nagarjuna, and Gangesa taught

Ethics Ethics is practical— pertains to action So, ethics is the pursuit of good judgment about action— about what to do Socrates

Is philosophy practical? Philosophy asks questions What the world is like, How we know it, and What we ought to do about it, Which affect our lives every day Philosophy is the most practical of all disciplines

Socrates (-470 - -399) Contemporary of Sophocles, Euripides, Aristophanes, Herodotus, and Thucydides First in West to advance philosophical arguments Wrote nothing; appears as character in dialogues of Plato (-427 - -347) Socrates

Socratic method (dialectic) Socrates asks what ___ is Someone answers Socrates analyzes the definition and asks questions to show that It’s unclear It’s too narrow It’s too broad Someone proposes another definition, etc.

What is a chair? Chairs

Definitions and their problems Chairs What is a chair? “A kind of furniture” Unclear: What kind? “A piece of furniture with four legs and a back” Too narrow Too broad Things satisfying the definition

Definitions and their problems Chairs What is a chair? “A kind of furniture” Unclear: What kind? “A piece of furniture with four legs and a back” Too broad: stools, divans, sofas, benches Too narrow: bean bag chairs, chairs suspended from ceiling Too narrow Too broad Things satisfying the definition

The Apology “And so he [Meletus, the prosecutor] proposes the death penalty. What shall I propose, O men of Athens? Clearly that which is my due. And what should I pay or receive? What should be done to a man who has never had the wit to be idle during his whole life?”

What Socrates tried to do “I have been careless of what the many care about-- wealth, family interests, military offices, speaking in the assembly, magistracies, plots, and parties. Reflecting that I was really too honest a man to live like this, I didn't go where I could do no good to you or to myself, but where I could do the greatest good privately to every one of you.”

Seek Virtue and Wisdom “I sought to persuade every one of you to look to himself, and seek virtue and wisdom before he looks to his private interests, and look to the state before he looks to the interests of the state; and that this should be the order which he observes in all his actions.”

What do I deserve? “What should be done to someone like me? Doubtless some good thing, O men of Athens, if he has what he deserves. The good thing should be suitable to him. What would be a reward suitable to a poor man who is your benefactor, who desires the leisure to instruct you?”

A free lunch! “There can be no more fitting reward than free meals in the Prytaneum, O men of Athens, a reward which he deserves far more than the citizen who has won the prize at Olympia in the horse or chariot race, whether the chariots were drawn by two horses or by many.”

Why? “For such a victor does not need free meals, but I do. He only gives you the appearance of happiness; I give you the reality.”

Divine Command “Someone will say: Yes, Socrates, but can't you hold your tongue? . . . Now I have great difficulty in making you understand my answer to this. For if I tell you that this would be a disobedience to a divine command, and therefore that I can't hold my tongue, you won't think I'm serious.”

The Examined Life “If I say again that the greatest thing a man can do is to converse about virtue every day, and that the unexamined life is not worth living-- you are still less likely believe me.”

To philosophize is to Seek wisdom and virtue Lead an examined life Reflect on what life is and ought to be Put your life in perspective To see and reflect on “the big picture”

Confucius (-551 - -479) Kong Fuzi (K’ung Fu-Tzu)— grand master Kong Contemporary of Laozi, Buddha, Thales, Aesop, Biblical prophets Superior person (junzi)

To philosophize is to Try to understand the world with an open mind Seek the truth wherever it leads 2:14. The Master said, "The superior person is open-minded and not partisan. The mean person is partisan and not open-minded.” J

Look Within Look within ourselves 15:20. The Master said, "What the superior person seeks is in himself. What the inferior person seeks is in others."

To philosophize is to Seek clarity 16:10. Confucius said, "The superior person thoughtfully considers nine things: With his eyes, he wants to see clearly. With his ears, he wants to hear distinctly. In countenance, he wants to be warm. In demeanor, he wants to be respectful. In speech, he wants to be sincere. In business, he wants to be careful. When in doubt, he wants to ask others. When angry, he thinks of difficulties that might result. When he sees opportunity for gain, he thinks of righteousness."

To philosophize is to Get to the bottom of things 1:2. “. . . The superior person attends to the root of things. From the root grows the Way.”

To philosophize is to Know yourself 2:17. The Master said, "Yu, shall I teach you what knowledge is? When you know something, to maintain that you know it; when you don't know something, to admit that you don't know it-- this is knowledge." Confucius teaching, Ming dynasty sketch; Tholos temple, Delphi

Two Philosophical Issues 1. Is the world independent of us, or do we in some sense construct it? 2. Can we know anything about the world independently of experience?

Realism and Idealism 1. Is the world independent of us, or do we in some sense construct it? Realism: Some things are independent of mind Idealism: Everything depends on mind; things are constructions or projections of the mind

What difference does it make? Realism Idealism Truth Correspondence Instrumental Standards External Internal Progress Representation From a point of view

Rationalism and Empiricism 2. Can we know anything about the world independently of experience? Rationalism: Yes: Some knowledge of the world is independent of our own experience Empiricism: No: All knowledge of the world comes from experience

What difference does it make? Rationalism Empiricism Philosophical reflection— the humanities Independent source of truth At best, depends on science Knowledge beyond experience— God, the soul In principle, yes No

Four Kinds of Philosophers

Classifying philosophers Realist Idealist Rationalist Explorer Dreamer (Platonist) (Kantian) Empiricist Scientist Skeptic (Aristotelian) (Humean)

Explorers (Platonists) Rationalism: We can know something about the world independently of experience Realism: Some things are independent of mind

Explorers (Platonists) We can know something about the world as it is, independently of mind, through reflection alone

Explorers (Platonists) How? The structure of the mind matches, in some respects, the structure of the world Mind and world harmonize

Architects (Platonists) tend to be: > Internalists: Knowledge is justified true belief > Correspondence theorists: truth is correspondence with reality Plato, Origen, Augustine, Avicenna, Descartes, Leibniz

Dreamers (Kantians) Rationalists: We can know something about the world independently of experience Idealists: Everything is mind-dependent

Dreamers (Kantians) We can know something about the world through reflection alone How? Our minds construct the world

Dreamers (Kantians) tend to be > Internalists: Knowledge is justified true belief > Coherence theorists: Truth is maximally comprehensive coherence Buddha, Laozi, Kant, Hegel

Scientists (Aristotelians) Empiricists: All knowledge of the world comes from experience Realists: Some things are mind-independent

Scientists (Aristotelians) We can gain knowledge of the world, but only through experience

Scientists (Aristotelians) tend to be > Externalists: Knowledge = true belief from a reliable process > Correspondence theorists: truth = correspondence with reality Aristotle, Confucius, Nyayayikas, Aquinas, Locke, Mill, Russell

Skeptic (Humean) Empiricists: All knowledge of the world comes from experience Idealists: Everything is mind-dependent

Skeptic (Humean) We know at most our own ideas, and those only through experience We have no better insight into the workings of our minds than into the world itself

Humeans tend to be > Internalists: Knowledge = justified true belief (or would be, if we had any) > Skeptics: We know nothing at all Sextus, Nagarjuna, Berkeley, Hume

What is Philosophy? Philosophy has been called many things and it can have many meanings Those single words or statements on the right side are only some of them What words would you add? Wisdom Reality Theories Meaning of Life Nature of being human Life perspectives

Here is One Definition: Putting the nature of the universe, including meaning, people, and relationships, into an understand-able or explainable perspective What is your definition???

The purpose of this presentation is to acquaint you with various philosophical systems or models. Each system or model can be interpreted in terms of the education or training of adults. Once you examine a particular system or model, ask yourself such questions as (a) With what parts do I agree and with what parts do I disagree? (b) How might they impact on or affect the way I train or educate adults? (c) What does the model have to say for my role as an adult educator or trainer? Examine the visual representation of these notions in the next slide.

Various Philosophical Systems or Models Idealism Humanism Can be Interpreted in Terms of Educating/Training Adults With Implications for Training/Educating Adults With Implications for Adult Educator Roles

IDEALISM Meaning is in the ideals of life itself Reality is made up of absolute truths However, a “truth” sometimes is only in the eye of the beholder Educationally this means the use of inductive reasoning, lecturing Plato was an early key proponent of this model

REALISM Meaning comes through empirically proven facts Reality is made up of natural laws, facts However, empirical facts are always subject to change Educationally this involves scientific reasoning Chisholm and Whitehead proponents

PROGRESSIVISM Meaning comes through concrete facts Theory based on truth makes up reality Problem solving and experimenting are instructional techniques But does this diminish the teacher’s role? John Dewey a leading proponent (had a huge impact on American education)

LIBERALISM Freedom comes through a liberated mind Humans endowed with reasoning ability Thus, educationally you teach learners the classics and develop their minds But, the past may not relate to modern problems and situations Aristotle was an early proponent

BEHAVIORISM Human behavior tied to prior conditioning External forces control all human behavior Could learning be too complex for the control of certain behaviors? Teaching methods include behavioral conditioning, feedback, drill and practice B. F. Skinner well known proponent (he also impacted heavily on U.S. education)

HUMANISM Intellect distinguishes humans from animals Humans have potential/innate goodness Thus, educationally you facilitate and encourage self-direction Some educational needs may be missed? Abraham Maslow early proponent

RADICALISM People themselves create meaning Knowledge leads to an understanding of reality and, ultimately, necessary change This approach can be idealistic in nature and often leads to confrontation Teach by dialogue and problem solving Paulo Freire prominent proponent

ECLECTICISM Fortunately, there is a way of dealing with all the various models Eclecticism is not a philosophical system or model, but rather is the synthesizing and per-sonal interpretation of various models to draw out the best components for yourself Thus, you pull the best from various models in any effort to build your own statement of personal philosophy

Selected References Archambault, R. D. (1964). John Dewey on education. New York: Modern Library, Random House. Bambrough, R. (Ed.). (1963). The philosophy of Aristotle (A. E. Wardman & J. L. Creed, Trans.). New York: New American Library of World Literature. Bergevin, P. (1967). A philosophy for adult education. New York: Seabury. Brubacher, J. S. (1969). Modern philosophies of education. New York: McGraw-Hill. Chisholm, R. M. (1961). Realism and the background of phenomenology. Glencoe, IL: Free Press. Cushman, R. E. (1958). Therapeia: Plato's conception of philosophy. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press. Dewey, J. (1916). Democracy and education. New York: Macmillan. Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. New York: Macmillan. Elias, J. L., & Merriam, S. (1980). Philosophical foundations of adult education. Malabar, FL: Krieger. Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York: Herder and Herder. Lindeman, E. C. (1928). The meaning of adult education. New York: New Republic. Maslow, A. (1976). Education and peak experience. In C. D. Schlosser (Ed.), The person in education: A humanistic approach. New York: Macmillan. Rogers, C. R. (1969). Freedom to learn. Columbus, OH: Merrill. Skinner, B. F. (1971). Beyond freedom and dignity. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. Taylor, A. (1926). Plato: The man and his work. London: Methuen & Co., Ltd. Whitehead, A. N. (1933). Adventure of ideas. New York: Macmillan. Zinn, L. M. (1990). Identifying your philosophical orientation. In M. W. Galbraith (Ed.), Adult learning methods: A guide for effective instruction. Malabar, FL: Krieger.