Early Societies in S. Asia Chapter 4

Harappan Society  Name after Harappa, a chief city  Developed near the Indus river, waters used for irrigation of crops  Hard to follow Harappan Society for two reasons: physical remains are inaccessible & lack of written records  However understanding Harappan Society still depends physical remains above water table  Dravidian Language

Harappan Society

I. Harappan Society cont’d

Mohenjo Daro Excavation (aerial view)

I. Harappan Society cont’d 2. Political Organization a. no evidence of Harappan political system, still prominent though 3. Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro a. city walls, fortified citadel b. Large granary, suggesting center of political authority and site for collection and redistribution of taxes paid in grain c. marketplaces, temples, public buildings, residential districts & broad streets w/carefully planned grid d. large pool

I. Harappan Society cont’d e. high degree of standardization possible because of Indus river facilitating trade, travel & communication among far regions of Harappa. (all corners of society) 4. Specialized Labor and Trade a. Depended on agricultural economy b. engaged in trade both foreign and domestic c. pottery, tools, decorative items came to Harappa d. Traded w/Mesopotamia: copper, ivory, beads & semi-precious stones for wool, leather & olive oil.

Bronze Statuette Produced at Mohenjo-Daro Depicts little Dancing girl Carving on a seal discovered at Mohenjo-Daro Depicts a man wearing cattle horns and Meditating. May represent Harappan deity.

I. Harappan Society cont’d

e. almost all houses had private bathrooms, and drainage/sewage system f. not enough info to understand discovered texts g. variety of statues, figurines, and illustrations reflect representational art. h. experts in gold, copper & bronze metallurgy 2. Fertility Cults a. Strong concern for fertility, evident with similarities in Harappan deities and Hindu fertility sculptures b. Venerated gods and goddesses that were associated with creation and procreation c. trees & animals associated w/vital forces

I. Harappan Society cont’d d. scholars noticed similarities between Harappan and Hindu deities. 3. Harappan Decline a. after 1900 bce Harappa entered a state of decline b. theories: ecological degradation, deforestation c. eventually lost agricultural benefits and became a desert d. other theories: natural catastrophes: flooding, earth quakes e. by 1700 bce population began to abandon Mohenjo-Daro because of difficulties to sustain complex urban societies.

I. Harappan Society cont’d f. peoples from other societies adopted Harappan ways for their own purposes.

II. The Indo-European Migrations & Early Aryan India  Foreigners came in and began to settle in the Indus valley and beyond  Most prominent Indo-Europeans settlers were the Aryans  Est. small herding and agricultural communities  Aryans did not invade militarily  1500 bce Aryans & Dravidians interacted, intermarried and laid social & cultural foundations that still influence present day India

II. The Indo-European Migrations & Early Aryan India cont’d

2. The Vedas a. did not use writing but composed songs and poems. b. preserved religious and literary works through memorization and oral transmission c. they used Sanskrit language to do this d. Vedas were a collection of hymns, songs, prayers and rituals honoring the various gods of the Aryans e. Rig Veda-1028 hymns addressed to Aryan gods f. Vedas represent a priestly perspective on affairs g. Veda means “wisdom”/ “knowledge”; priests needed this knowledge to carry out their functions

II. The Indo-European Migrations & Early Aryan India cont’d 3. Vedic Age a. Vedas reflect the clash between Dravidians and others living in India. b. Vedas call indigenous people dasas “enemies” or “subject people” c. Indra=Aryan war god d. Relatively peaceful w/Dravidians there were intermittent conflicts e. Aryans fought amongst themselves, no state or common gov’t but many chiefdoms f. Rajas=chiefdom leaders

II. The Indo-European Migrations & Early Aryan India cont’d 4. Aryan Migrations in India a. Aryans settled in Punjab (modern day N border of India and Pakistan) b. est. communities through east sub-continent c. learned how to make iron tools, est. agricultural communities. d. iron implements allowed them to cultivate more land, produce more food, support larger communities which pushed them deeper into the Ganges river valley. e. cultivated rice

II. The Indo-European Migrations & Early Aryan India cont’d

1. Caste and Varna a. caste developed slowly and gradually b. as they settled in India interactions w/Dravidians led to refine social distinctions c. varna=color, major social classes, eludes to the first 4 major social classes d. social distinctions arose partly from complexion between the Aryan “wheat colored” & Dravidians “darker-skinned” e. Aryans & Dravidians mixed, mingled, intermarried, became difficult to distinguish f. Based social distinction on Ancestry

II. The Indo-European Migrations & Early Aryan India cont’d 2. Social Distinctions in the Vedic Age a. 1000bce Aryans recognize 4 main varnas: 1) brahmins (priests), 2)kshatriyas (warriors & aristocrats), 3)vaishyas (cultivators, artisans & merchants), 4) sudras (landless peasants & serfs) b. untouchables later added, those whom performed dirty or unpleasant tasks c. the Rig Veda has hymns about varnas as a part of the creation of the early days d. the four castes emanated from the four parts of Purusha when the gods sacrificed him.

II. The Indo-European Migrations & Early Aryan India cont’d 3. Subcastes and Jati a. elaborate scheme of social classification emerged b. jati=people working at the same or similar tasks in a given area belonged to the same subcaste and their offspring joined them in both occupation and jati membership d. jati members ate with one another and intermarried, cared for those who became ill or were struggling e. had rules and specific behavior, specific communication with members of different castes and subcastes f. Breaking jati rules could result in expulsion from the larger group

II. The Indo-European Migrations & Early Aryan India cont’d 4. Castes and Social Mobility a. caste system accommodated social change b. higher caste members could lose their social positions of honor and move down in social hierarchy c. mobility was based more on groups than individuals d. mobility in social heirarchy led to an ease of tensions e. caste systems also allowed foreigners a place in the system

II. The Indo-European Migrations & Early Aryan India cont’d

d. woman’s duty according to the book was to bear children and maintain their homes. 2. Sati a. widows voluntarily throw themselves on the funeral pyre of deceased husband to join him in death b. this ritual esp. for socially prominent women to show devotion to husbands

III. Religion in the Vedic Age

III. Religion in the Vedic Age cont’d 2. Ritual Sacrifices a. performances of ritual sacrifices were more important than ethical concerns b. believed their gods came down to earth to join them in rituals c. felt that sacrificing & pleasing the gods would lead to military success, large families, long life & abundant herds 3. Spirituality a. Aryans eventually became tired of the sacrificial rituals (felt no real communication w/gods) b. 800bce individual begin to leave villages, go into forests, reflect on relationships between humans, the world and gods

III. Religion in the Vedic Age cont’d

2. Brahman, the Universal Soul a. Upanishads taught that appearances are deceiving and that we are not separate autonomous creatures b. we are a part of a larger cosmic order a part of a universal soul, Brahman c. Brahman is eternal, unchanging, permanent foundations for all things d. Upanishads believed individuals souls were born into the physical world several times e. highest goal of the soul was to escape the cycle of birth & rebirth enter into union with Brahman f. In the Chandogya Upanishad, a man explained to his son how the subtle essence of Brahman pervades everything.

III. Religion in the Vedic Age cont’d 3. Teaching of the Upanishads a. samsara-at death souls go to the World of the fathers then return to earth in new incarnation b. karma-live virtuous lives & fulfill their duties expect rebirth into a purer and more honorable existence, however, if you did not fulfill duties your rebirth would be of a harsher existence c. Moskha-deep, dreamless sleep that came w/ permanent liberation from physical incarnation d. yoga helps to concentrate on the nature of Brahman and its relationship w/the soul

III. Religion in the Vedic Age cont’d 4. Religion and Vedic Society a. samsara and karma reinforced the Vedic Social order it helped explain why individual were born into social groups b. Upanishads discourage greed, envy, gluttony and all manner of vice that indicated attachment to the material world c. encourage personal integrity and respect for all living things