Prejudice Theories and research

Definitions (from previous lecture) Stereotypes Specific traits attributed to people based on group membership (stereotypes are protypes!) Prejudice (opposite of allophilia) Negative attitudes toward the members of a specific group Discrimination Negative behaviors directed toward members of a specific group

Types of prejudice Discrimination can be institutional or interpersonal, but prejudice is always interpersonal Prejudice has two components Emotional (how you feel about a group) Cognitive (what you think about a group) especially the group’s intent and competence to pursue it Prejudice has many targets Racism Linguicism Ageism Religious intolerance Heterosexism Political intolerance Classism Ableism Sexism

Four types of outgroups Fiske et al., 2002, JPSP, 82, 878-902

Perception of outgroups (measures) As viewed by society, how _________ are members of this group? Competent Confident Independent Competetive Intelligent As viewed by society, how __________ are members of this group? Tolerant Warm Good natured Sincere Fiske et al., 2002, JPSP, 82, 878-902

Perception of outgroups Student sample Allophilia Paternalistic prejudice Contemptuous prejudice Envious prejudice Fiske et al., 2002, JPSP, 82, 878-902

Perception of outgroups Student sample Fiske et al., 2002, JPSP, 82, 878-902 Community sample in Amherst, MA

Perceptions of outgroups

Allport’s Scale of Prejudice intensity Antilocution (1) Antilocution (or hate speech) means a majority group freely makes jokes and refers to a minority group in terms of negative stereotypes and negative images. Harmful or not? Avoidance (2) People in a minority group are actively avoided by members of the majority group. Harmful how? Discrimination (3) Minority group is discriminated against through the denial of opportunities and services (prejudice in action). Physical Attack (4) The majority group vandalizes minority property and carries out violent attacks on individuals or groups. Extermination (5) The majority group seeks extermination of the minority group. Antilocution harm is through perpetuation of stereotypes and inaccurate information Avoidance harm is though isolation and loss of social capital Discrimination harm is through lack of access to education and employment, as well as political power. Examples of physical attacks are lynchings of Blacks, pogroms against Jews in Europe, tarring and feathering Mormons in 1800s and British Loyalists in the 1700s. Examples of extermination are Indian Wars to remove Native Americans, Final Solution of Jewish Problem, and Ethnic cleansing in Armenia.

Theories of prejudice Who/what do we blame for prejudice? A few “bad apples”? Morally neutral cognitive wiring (information processing)? A morally corrupt society?

Theories of prejudice formation Psychodynamic theory Realistic Conflict theory Social Identity theory Social Learning theory Cognitive theory Classical conditioning theory

Theories of prejudice (psychodynamic) The prejudiced personality Process: Growing up in authoritarian families Evidence Some support (high submissiveness, high conformity) Many limitations Ignores situational factors (1952 Virginia mine study) Ignores sociocultural influences (Princeton study) Fails to explain uniformity (were all Nazis authoritarian?) Fails to explain why specific targets are chosen Fails to explain why most people are capable of out-group prejudice given the right conditions

Theories of prejudice (realistic conflict) Realistic Conflict Theory (Sherif, 1961) Process We compete over scarce resources During competition, the “other” is considered an enemy to justify trying to “win” Enemy is then dehumanized and scapegoated Evidence 1958 Southern State lynching study Sherif’s Robber’s Cave study (next 3 slides) Some limitations Doesn’t explain why there is no inter-occupation conflict Doesn’t explain why prejudice occurs when there is little competition

Robbers Cave Experiment

Robbers Cave Study Stage 1: In-group formation

Robbers Cave Study Stage 2: Group competition

Robbers Cave Study Stage 3: In-group formation

Theories of prejudice formation/change Social Identity Theory Identity derived from group affiliation People tend to attribute positive characteristics to own group and view the other group more critically (ultimate attribution error) But why does this happen? Self worth (self-esteem) derived from group achievement and favorable comparisons with other groups Result: People automatically favor in-group members Evidence Minimum group experiments show in-group favoritism But they don’t show out-group derogation

Theories of prejudice formation/change Social Learning Theory Allport’s notion of lack of information coupled with hostility Lack of information makes people rely on stereotypes Hostility makes them look for a group to scapegoat Stereotypes lead to prejudice Social modeling of prejudice (parents/friends/teachers/media) Few models of anti-racism

Theories of prejudice formation/change Classical conditioning theory Process: Fear conditioned through secondary conditioning (e.g., walking down street with mom)

Even the Well-Intentioned Have Bias Fiske (2002) - in Western cultures: about 10% of individuals show blatant racism about 80% show subtle racial biases Subtle racial biases: avoidance of interactions awkwardness slips of the tongue stereotypic assumptions and judgments From Susan Fiske’s (2002) What we know about bias and intergroup conflict, the problem of the century Subtle bias comes from conflict between ideals to not be prejudiced and bias Well-intentioned people rarely express hostility toward out-group, but may withhold liking, respect, positive emotions Some outgroups envied and respected for perceived competence and high status but resented and disliked b/c they compete with in-group; others are pitied and disrespected but treated warmly b/c they do not threatern Blame outgroup for own plight

Three theories of subtle prejudice Modern or symbolic racism (Kinder & Sears, 1981) Blaming the victim Support of policies that all happen to disadvantage racial minorities Ambivalent racism (Katz & Hass, 1988) High scores on pro-Black attitudes (pity for the disadvantaged) High scores on anti-Black attitudes (hostility toward the deviant) Aversive racism (Gaertner & Dovidio, 1986) A desire to be egalitarian and non-racist Unconscious racist cognitions that are manifested during stress or ambiguity

Scenes from Crash: Aversive Racism Character development Racism or not racism

Fighting prejudice Contact theory (antidote to realistic group conflict) Equal status contact Contact should have high acquaintance potential Out-group members must not conform to stereotypes Contact situation must encourage cooperation Group contact must be supported by authority

Fighting prejudice (continued) Work on yourself Become aware of personal (and societal) stereotypes Get to know people as individuals who are part of groups Avoid just-world beliefs Be aware of self-fulfilling prophecies Avoid blaming the victim Work on others Do not tolerate prejudicial remarks, including jokes Share what you think and believe, without attacking Promote multiculturalism Change the metaphor Educate yourself Learn a foreign language Diversify circle of friends

Tolerance is not enough