Arousal

Definition – “The level of readiness to perform.” Arousal. Definition – “The level of readiness to perform.” -The motivation of a performer to direct behaviour in a particular manner. -Arousal can affect performers both positively and negatively. -It can also affect the performer physiologically (somatic) – e.g. increase in sweating/heart rate or psychologically (cognitive) e.g. thought process. -The level of arousal is controlled by R.A.S. (The reticular activating system). -The R.A.S. identifies the amount of stimulation which enters the body and initiates a suitable response. -The R.A.S. consists of a number of brain cells situated in the brain stem. -A performer should be able to control arousal levels to maintain an optimum level. -This ensures that decision making and concentration are not negatively affected.

The Drive Theory of Arousal. -The Drive Theory suggests a linear relationship between arousal and performance. -Promoted in 1943 by Hull. -Hull stated that as the level of arousal increases so too does the level of performance. -Spence and Spence took the drive theory to another level and stated that: -As arousal levels increase the performers’ dominant habit/response would become evident. P=f (HxD) Where: P= Performance F= Function H= Dominant Habit D= Drive/Arousal

-Spence and Spence suggested that arousal effects are linked to: -The nature of the task. -The experience of the performer involved. -Therefore, as arousal increases: -An experienced performer would complete a skill well because he/she has a well learnt dominant habit. BUT -An inexperienced performer would complete a skill less well because he/she does not have a well learnt dominant habit. -A dominant habit can be defined as “the typical behaviour pattern of an individual in the execution of a task”.

-Drive theory is closely linked to Social Facilitation. -Social Facilitation is the “influence of the presence of others on performance”. -This influence may be positive (experienced performers). -Or negative (inexperienced performers). -The main criticism of drive theory is that it does not explain why highly skilled performers sometimes make mistakes in highly pressurised situations e.g. a professional footballer missing a penalty. -The drive theory does not distinguish between different types of arousal e.g. somatic (physiological) or cognitive (psychological).

Inverted U Theory. -The Inverted U theory of arousal was suggested in 1908 by Yerkes and Dodson. -The Inverted U theory suggests an optimal arousal level for maximum performance.

-The Inverted U theory works better than the Drive theory in explaining why more experienced performers can make mistakes/perform poorly. -Over arousal results in over stimulation of the brain which affects the control of skilled motor responses and decision making. -This over stimulation takes up some of the processing capacity of the brain with self doubt/unnecessary information. -This affects the quality of skill delivery. -Different arousal levels may be required for different skills/situations within an activity e.g. a hockey player may have to make a tackle (high arousal) and immediately after take a penalty shot (low arousal).

Factors to consider when determining the Optimum level of Arousal. The Nature of the task. -Complex/fine skills require a lower level of arousal e.g. snooker/archery/darts/putting. -Gross/simple skills require a higher level of arousal e.g. weightlifting/shot putting/rugby

Skill level of the Performer. -Experienced performers can cope better at higher arousal levels than beginners. -For example, a novice footballer may become over aroused when faced with a defender because he/she needs all their concentration to be focused on basic skills. -A more experienced player is able to execute skills under pressure.

The Personality of the Performer. -More extrovert performers seem to cope with higher arousal levels better than introvert performers. The Disadvantage of the Inverted U theory. -The Inverted U theory fails to explain how a performer may be over aroused during performance yet still recover to compete effectively.

The Zone of Optimal Functioning. -In 1980, Hanin, proposed that performers have a zone of optimal functioning (in the zone). -The zone of optimal functioning is an extension of the Inverted U theory and suggest that there is an optimal area of maximum attention focus as opposed to a point of optimal arousal. -Every performer will have his or her own individual zone of optimal functioning. The zone of optimal functioning differs according to the task and the individual i.e. a fine control task requires a low arousal zone e.g. archery shot. -A gross control task requires a high arousal zone e.g. rugby tackle.

Advantages Disadvantages -Movements become effortless. Advantages and Disadvantages of the Zone of Optimal Functioning. Advantages -Movements become effortless. -Quick decision making. -Total Control. -Correct cue selection. -Focused on task. -Not distracted by audience/opposition. -A feeling of calm despite pressure. -A belief in a positive result. Disadvantages -Does not differentiate between cognitive and somatic anxiety. -Some investigators have shown that there is no significant difference in performance whether performers are in or out of their zone.

The Catastrophe Theory. -The Catastrophe theory was suggested by Hardy and Frazey in 1987. -The Catastrophe theory has some similarities to the Inverted U theory. -The Catastrophe theory states that increased cognitive arousal will improve performance up to a given optimal point.

An example of Catastrophe theory from Sport. -In a training situation, a gymnast may have a low level of arousal and perform routines perfectly. -In competition he/she may become over aroused. -This causes a reduction in performance levels, decision making is detrimentally affected and mistakes are made. -The gymnast may recover, return to an optimal level of arousal and performance will improve. -OR, the gymnast’s level of arousal may continue to rise, performance deteriorates further and a Catastrophe ensues.

-As performers improve a coach can? Peak Flow Experience. Definition – “A state in which performance is at its highest level, achieved effortlessly, without thought and in complete confidence.” -Peak flow experience suggests that the experience of “being in the zone” is achieved best when the level of the task involved is appropriate to the performer’s level of skill. -A performer who is face with a task that he/she believes is beyond their capability would become anxious. -If the task is too easy for the performer they would become bored and de-motivated. -Peak flow is achieved when skilled performers are given a task that is just beyond their capability. -As performers improve a coach can? gradually increase the skill level of the task. -Confidence levels will increase as tasks are learnt. -However, tasks should not be set at too high a level so as not to cause de-motivation. -A coach should keep the balance of task difficulty between belief and ability.