Ethnic Diversity and Social Capital Tests of Putnam’s thesis in European countries and the Netherlands Prepared for: colloquium civil society Katholieke Universiteit Leuven

Ethnic Diversity and Social Capital Putnam’s core claims The Economist ( ) Blair schrok van Putnam’s recente bevinding: Blanke Amerikanen die in overwegend blanke wijken wonen hebben meer vertrouwen in blanken dan zij die in overwegend niet-blanke wijken wonen (anno 2000) Scandinavian Political Studies (2007) Westerse samenlevingen worden steeds etnisch diverser door immigratie en hogere vruchtbaarheid onder allochtonen Hoe beïnvloedt (deze toename in) etnische diversiteit het sociaal vertrouwen? Tests of Putnam’s thesis in European countries and the Netherlands

Ethnic Diversity and Social Capital Putnam’s core claims Immigration and ethnic diversity challenge social solidarity and inhibit social capital: social networks and the associated norms of reciprocity and trustworthiness “Diversity (…) seems to bring out the turtle in all of us…” Ethnic diversity tends to breakdown social capital, at least in the US! Also in the EU? And in NL? Tests of Putnam’s thesis in European countries and the Netherlands

Ethnic Diversity and Social Capital Putnam’s core claims In areas with greater diversity: Formal social capital: - less likelihood of working on a community project - lower likelihood of giving to charity or volunteering Informal social capital: - fewer close friends and confidants - less happiness - more time spent watching television Tests of Putnam’s thesis in European countries and the Netherlands

Ethnic Diversity and Social Capital Putnam’s core claims Also in the EU? Gesthuizen, M., Meer, T. van der, Scheepers, P. (2009): Ethnic diversity and social capital in Europe, Scandinavian Political Studies, 32, 2, And in the Netherlands? Tolsma, J., Meer, T. van der, & Gesthuizen, M. (2009): The impact of neighbourhood and municipality characteristics on social cohesion in the Netherlands. Acta Politica, 44, Tests of Putnam’s thesis in European countries and the Netherlands

Putnam’s thesis in Europe and the Netherlands? Ethnic Diversity and Social Capital Tests of Putnam’s thesis in European countries and the Netherlands Crucial question: To what extent do contextual level characteristics, like ethnic diversity, next to other contextual characteristics, affect different indicators of social capital of individual citizens in European countries Dutch municipalities and Dutch neighbourhoods?

Constrict theory the more diverse a social context actually is in terms of different (ethnic) groups, the less people of one’s ‘own kind’ there are around with whom people can socially identify, the more they distrust others and the less they will socially connect –to out-groups, –but even to people of their ‘own kind’ Ethnic Diversity and Social Capital Tests of Putnam’s thesis in European countries and the Netherlands

Constrict theory: puzzling mechanism? Inconsistent with social identity theory: the more lacking identification(s), the more investments in identifications Inconsistent with ethnic conflict theory: the more immigration, the more (perceived) threat, the more in-group solidarity Inconsistent with homophily paradigm: the more lacking homophily, the more investment in homogeneous networks Theoretical mechanism: ethnic diversity implies intergroup differences (language, habits, norms) which creates intergroup ‘social barriers’ –towards out-groups, –but more generally: even within in-group Ethnic Diversity and Social Capital Tests of Putnam’s thesis in European countries and the Netherlands

Social capital: indicators Formal participate in local community projects member of, volunteer for, or donate to civic organisations Informal meet close friends meet neighbours providing informal help Attitudes social trust tolerance for neighbours from a different race Ethnic Diversity and Social Capital Tests of Putnam’s thesis in European countries and the Netherlands

Individual and contextual explanations Explain social capital by: characteristics of individuals (e.g., education) characteristics of countries, municipalities, neighbourhoods (e.g., ethnic diversity) Ethnic Diversity and Social Capital Tests of Putnam’s thesis in European countries and the Netherlands

Hypotheses on ethnic diversity (1) the more ethnic diversity, (a) the less social trust, (b) the less informal social capital (c) the less formal social capital (2) the more immigration, (a) the less social trust, (b) the less informal social capital, (c) the less formal social capital

Hypotheses on economic inequality The more inequality, the higher the ‘social barriers’, the less people will connect to others, informally or formally, (3) the higher the level of economic inequality (a) the less social trust, (b) the less informal social capital, (c) the less formal social capital Versus economic prosperity?

Competing theories: social security and democratic history Some welfare state regimes may ‘crowd out’ formal and informal help (4) the higher the level of social security (a) the less informal social capital, (b) the less formal social capital Some (former communist or totalitarian) regimes, drove their people to retreat into private (family) lives (5) the longer the history of continuous democracy, (a) the more interpersonal trust, (b) the more informal social capital, (c) the more formal social capital

Contextual Determinants of Social Capital: Complementary Explanations Country determinants Immigration and/or Ethnic Diversity (-) Economic Inequality (-) (Economic Prosperity)(+) Social Security(-) Democratic History(+) Neighbourhood and municipality determinants Ethnic Diversity(-) Economic Inequality(-) Economic prosperity(+) Crime(-) Residential mobility(-) Ethnic Diversity and Social Capital Tests of Putnam’s thesis in European countries and the Netherlands

Data and measurements Eurobarometer collected in people in 28 countries Dependent Variables: Interpersonal Trust, Formal and Informal Social Capital Independent variables at the contextual level: Ethnic diversity + Migrant stock + Net migration Economic inequality + Economic prosperity Social security Years of continuous democracy Independent variables at the individual level

Multi-level analyses Empty models: variance at individual and contextual level? Plus individual level determinants (composition effects) Plus contextual level determinants: -Various measures of ethnic diversity, step by step -Various measures of ethnic diversity, simultaneously -Other contextual measurements Tests for robustness Tests for stability Improvements: test for measurement equivalence

Results: Europe Social trustInformal social capital Formal social capital Ethnic diversity Immigration -++ Economic inequality -- Economic prosperity -+ Level of social security + History of democracy +++ Ethnic Diversity and Social Capital Tests of Putnam’s thesis in European countries and the Netherlands

Conclusions on Europe To what extent do national level characteristics, like ethnic diversity, next to other national characteristics, actually affect social capital of individual citizens in European countries? Not: ethnic diversity Not: migrant stock One exception: net migration reduces social trust Not: social security Economic inequality reduces volunteering and helping Democratic history: increases social trust, formal social capital and providing help

Improvements: the Netherlands In EU: 2 levels in multi-level analysis including many countries (28) with different histories of immigration and levels of ethnic diversity In NL: 3 rather than 2 levels in multi-level analysis: municipalities (245), neighbourhoods (503), individuals Testing more rigorously: Effects of ethnic diversity against other social barriers Ethnic Diversity and Social Capital Tests of Putnam’s thesis in European countries and the Netherlands

Focus on the Netherlands: High on Social Capital 3 levels in multi-level analysis: municipalities, neighbourhoods, individuals Effects of contextual characteristics on: Contact with neighbours (informal social capital) Volunteering for civic organization (formal social capital) Tolerance for neighbours from a different race Social trust Quality of social contacts Ethnic Diversity and Social Capital Tests of Putnam’s thesis in European countries and the Netherlands

Focus on the Netherlands: High on Social Capital Not only ethnic diversity as contextual characteristic but also: Economic Inequality Economic Prosperity Crime Rates Residential Mobility Contextual characteristics matter for whom? Different effects for native Dutch and minorities? No! Different effects for the rich and the poor? Yes! Ethnic Diversity and Social Capital Tests of Putnam’s thesis in European countries and the Netherlands

Results: average context effects in the Netherlands Ethnic Diversity and Social Capital Tests of Putnam’s thesis in European countries and the Netherlands Contact with neighbours VolunteerEthnic tolerance Social trustQuality of contacts NBMPNBMPNBMPNBMPNBMP Ethnic diversity -++ Economic inequality + Economic prosperity Crime rates Residential mobility +-+

Results: context effects for the poor in the Netherlands Ethnic Diversity and Social Capital Tests of Putnam’s thesis in European countries and the Netherlands Contact with neighbours VolunteerEthnic tolerance Social trustQuality of contacts NBMPNBMPNBMPNBMPNBMP Ethnic diversity --++ Economic inequality ++ Economic prosperity ++-- Crime rates Residential mobility +-+

Conclusions on the Netherlands “Diversity (…) seems to bring out the turtle in all of us…”? Ethnic diversity does not (yet?) consistently affect social capital negatively, not in Europe nor in the Netherlands Only the less affluent in ethnically diverse social contexts appear to ‘hunker down’: they have less social contacts with neighbours. Economic prosperity contributes to social capital Ethnic Diversity and Social Capital Tests of Putnam’s thesis in European countries and the Netherlands

Implications: policies Focus on economic prosperity instead of on ethnic diversity: improve local economy. Reduce and avoid high levels of ethnic concentration in neighbourhoods: –will refrain poor people from hunkering down –is very likely to reduce a ‘white flight’ –will increase inter-ethnic contact for ethnic minorities (SCP) Ethnic Diversity and Social Capital Tests of Putnam’s thesis in European countries and the Netherlands

Take home message So far, there is no convincing study which demonstrates that: ethnic diversity within European countries or within local communities of a specific European country reduces social capital. Ethnic Diversity and Social Capital Tests of Putnam’s thesis in European countries and the Netherlands