Global talent and the knowledge economy: an exploration of the UK experience Allan M Findlay and Alistair Geddes Centre for Applied Population Research University of Dundee Dundee DD1 4HN, UK Thanks to A.Stam « International Geographical Union » Hong Kong International Population Conference, Chinese University of HongKong, 10 th -12 th July 2007

Paper Outline 1.Introduction 2.Changing perspectives on ‘global talent’ 3.UK – from brain exchange to brain gain 4.Student mobility: a special category of international knowledge worker 5.From empiricism back to theory

INTRODUCTION Global talent: the new key to economic development? Knowledge economies and knowledge migration – how is knowledge transferred? UK policy tensions: DFID in relation to policies such as the ‘Fresh Talent Initiative’

2. Changing perspectives on skilled migration a)neo-liberal views Dumond et al 2005 Stalker 2000 Cornelius et al 2001  Knowledge as an individual attribute  Embrained, embodied, encultured, embedded and encoded

2. Changing Perspectives on skilled migration 2b) Structuralist perspectives Taylor, 2005: global cities as a key context for transnational talent flows Sklair, 2001: the international capitalist class Yeoh and Willis, 2005: gendered skill flows

2c Changing perspectives on skilled migration 2c) Knowledge and knowledge migration as relational concepts Counihan and Miller: constructivist perspectives MP Smith: 2001: transnational localism Williams: 2007: migrant agency, knowledge and transnational practices

3: From brain exchange to brain gain: the case of the migration of knowledge workers to the UK Over recent decades UK businesses have invested less in research and development than many other advanced nations The UK demand for scientists and engineers has been rising but the domestic supply of new graduates in some areas of science and engineering has been falling or static Result: Intervention of the UK government in two ways Increase the proportion of young people in HENew immigration policy

3. UK Policies on Knowledge Migration and International Student Recruitment Immigration Policy: ‘The market for skilled migration is a global market…The UK needs a policy that meets modern needs.’ Roche, 2000 International Student Policy: ‘People who are educated here have a lasting tie to the country. They promote Britain around the world, helping our trade…’ Blair 1999 International students ‘helps our goal to open up opportunities for more people (within the UK) to study’ Blair, Thus from a positive law to a utilitarian stance on skilled labour and student immigration during the first Blair government ( ).

3. Trends in skilled migration to the UK: from brain exchange to brain gain Net International Migration to the UK of non-British Nationals (thousands) Non British CitizensBritish nationals

3. Origins of work permit holders (long and short term) 2005 Top nine origins, 2005: (Home Office 2006, 43) India21,360 USA19,270 Australia 4,250 South Africa 3,980 Russia 3,270 Philippines 3,245 Bangladesh 2,780 Japan 2,535 China (exc HK) 2,475

TOTAL ACCEPTANCES FOR SETTLEMENT, (Home Office 2006)

3. Student migration compared with other forms of managed mobility Selected channels of migrant entry to the UK (source Home Office, 2006) Students (excludes dependents) 272,000369,000299,000 Work Permits 53,500 86,000 91,000 Working Holiday Makers 46,000 42,000 62,000 Spouses and fiances 30,000 42,000

4: Student mobility: a special category of international knowledge worker What kind of ‘knowledge’ is transferred through international student mobility? What role does participation in higher education in the UK play in shaping the ‘knowledge worker’? In what ways can this form of global talent transfer be seen to be ‘structured’?

4. Student mobility Student Migration Policy a)Blair launches target of UK winning 25% of International Students b)2000: student immigration procedures streamlined to facilitate entry and marketing scheme launched by Blackstone c)Following 9/11, by 2004 British Council able to claim UK has 24% of the market d)Study linked to work in the UK (eg 2004 Science and Engineering Graduate Scheme) e)2005 Raising costs of student visas, and tightening-up on overstaying. f)2006 Five Tier Points System includes students

4. UK Policies on International Student Recruitment as an Economic Force in Higher Education Income to UK HEIs from non-EU domiciled student fees University fee bands for selected UK Universities, 2005/6 (£ sterling)

4. Students in UK Higher Education institutions Overseas Students in UK HEIs, UndergraduatesPostgraduates 1996/7 77, , /5 165,795 (31% of all UGs) 152,605 (8.7%)

4. Trends in student migration to the UK: from training to skill recruitment Decisions on applications for an extension of leave to remain in the UK and settlement (excluding EEA nationals),

4. Trends in student migration to the UK: from training to skill recruitment Analysis of international student mobility data shows  A switch to admissions in the sciences  A switch increasingly to sourcing from China and India (China up 294% between 2001 and 2004; India up 200%)

5. Conclusions: Policy developments :overview Labour Migration From Brain Circulation to Brain Gain Student Migration From Training To Funding Higher Ed and Global Skill Recruitment

5. From empiricism back to theory and policy evaluation UK student and labour immigration policies are linked by a shared utilitarian view of international mobility During the Blair years the increase in international student numbers has helped finance UK HEIs, but it has also increasingly become a tool for recruiting foreign-domiciled S&E students into the UK labour market

5. From empiricism back to theory and policy evaluation Many drivers of international student migration lie beyond government policy – policies of competing economies -globalisation of higher education (uneven) -cultural influences shaping choice of destinations (language, class reproduction, experience etc) -changing links between higher education and global economic opportunities

5 From empiricism back to theory and evaluation International Student Migration: panacea to the global brain drain or the most effective form of knowledge worker transfer? 1)Under-theorised in the literature > invisible and neutral mobility? 2)Part of the training of the international capitalist class? > location in the global cities at the core of the global hierarchy 3)Embrained before migration, but encultured and embedded knowledge workers after engagement in Higher Education in another country 4)Financed by sending countries to the double benefit of host societies? 5)Or ISM as a new kind of ‘empowered knowledge workers engaged in translocal networks‘ (Williams, 2007)

4. Trends in skilled migration to the UK: from brain exchange to brain gain Selected origins of Admissions to the UK with Work Permits

4. Analysis of student immigration Non-UK EU Higher Education students (undergraduate and postgraduate) in Higher Education Institutions, 1999/ /04 by subject area

4. Analysis of student immigration Full time HE qualifications per nationality, as a percentage of the total full time HE qualifications, 1995/6 – 2003/4

4. Analysis of student immigration Non-UK domiciled students in 2000/01 and 2003/4 for selected origins (Top 10 origins in 2003/4)

Foreign labour inflows to UK by route of entry, 2005 number% WRS194, WPs86, EU&EFTA (2004)35, WHM20, HSMP17, SAWS15, Domestic Servants10, UK Ancestry8, SBS7, Au Pairs2, SEGS2, Ministers of Religion TOTAL400,

4.. Trends in student migration to the UK: from training to skill recruitment Student flows (all categories of study) to and from the UK by citizenship in thousands,

4. Trends in student migration to the UK: from training to skill recruitment Admissions of students excluding EEA nationals by nationality,

4. Analysis of student immigration Non-UK Non EU Higher Education students (undergraduate and postgraduate) in Higher Education Institutions, 1999/ /04 by subject area