Chapter 9: Race and Ethnicity

Objectives (slide 1 of 3) 9.1 Race and Ethnicity in Society Describe the distinction between race and ethnicity. 9.2 Race Explain the different concepts of race. Identify the three major racial classifications. 9.3 Ethnicity Compare and contrast race and ethnicity. Discuss the three major ways in which new minority groups emerge in a culture. Illustrate the four factors that influence the strength of a person’s sense of ethnic or racial identity.

Objectives (slide 2 of 3) 9.4 Prejudice Discuss the key perspectives on prejudice. Describe the nature of stereotypes. 9.5 Discrimination Describe the difference between prejudice and discrimination. Analyze the key theories of discrimination. 9.6 Theoretical Perspectives on Race and Ethnic Relations Compare and contrast the ways in which the major theoretical perspectives understand race and racial relations.

Objectives (slide 3 of 3) 9.7 Racial and Ethnic Relations in the United States Compare and contrast the major racial groups in the United States and how intersection theory dictates assumptions. 9.8 Key Issues in the Future of Race and Ethnicity Describe the key issues regarding race and ethnicity in the United States.

Race and Ethnicity in Society Race refers to biological categories that distinguish groups of people. Ethnicity refers to aspects of culture that distinguish one group from another. Learn Sociology Chapter 9: Race and Ethnicity in Society 9.1 Race and Ethnicity in Society LO: Describe the distinction between race and ethnicity The importance of race in society is as old as civilization itself. However, the concept of race remains somewhat elusive and heavily debated among social scientists. Regardless of whether races exist as biological categories or merely as something socially constructed by society, it is clear that the concept of race is an important one in society for a variety of reasons. Race has an impact on status, education, income, and general quality of life. Race impacts life chances. A distinct but related concept is ethnicity. Ethnicity differs from race is significant ways. While the term race is generally used to refer to biological categories that distinguish groups of people, ethnicity refers to aspects of culture that distinguish one group from another. Ethnicities can be classified in a myriad of ways, such as through religion, language, cuisine, or nationality. There can even be multiple ethnicities within a single racial group. Because of the array of possible ethnic classifications, there are far more ethnicities than racial types. Like race, however, ethnicity impacts life chances in a variety of ways. Ethnicity impacts attitudes and behaviors toward education, income, socioeconomic status, and quality of life. Ethnicity helps individuals form a sense of social identity and gives them a sense of connection to their heritage. In short, both ethnicity and race help people develop their sociological imagination.

Race Race: A socially constructed category of people who share some biologically transmitted traits that society considers important Racialization: The process by which people are placed into racial categories Learn Sociology Chapter 9: Race and Ethnicity in Society 9.2 Race LO: Explain the different concepts of race. Identify the three major racial classifications Although most social scientists believe that race is an artificial concept, scientists in many other disciplines do accept that races exist. Almost all forensic and physical anthropologists accept the fact that races have a biological origin. Similarly, most geneticists and evolutionary biologists accept the idea of race as biologically valid. Practitioners in these disciplines argue that if a person can assess race with reasonable accuracy, then it must have some basis in biological reality. Racial diversity very likely had its origin in our evolutionary ancestry. Social scientists, however, argue that these biological distinctions are unimportant. They define race as a socially constructed category of people who share some biologically transmitted traits that society considers important. As a society, Americans seem to view race as more important than citizens of other nations do. American society recognizes three racial categories—black, Asian, and white. These categories are generally consistent with many modern scientific views on which divide mankind into three categories. Caucasoid is the general term that is applied to people with light skin and fine hair texture. Negroid are people with darker skin and coarse, flat-shaped hair. Mongoloid peoples have yellow- or brown-toned skin and have folds in the eyelids that give a distinctive look. Sociologists further that distinctive categorization of people into racial categories is impossible. Rather than clear cut racial distinctions, there exists only a range of physical variations among human beings. Categorizations of race by nonscientists follow these basic categorizations quite closely and are remarkable reliable both throughout history and across cultures. As far back as the ancient Egyptians, reliable racial categories have been recognized and used. This process by which people are placed into racial categories is called racialization. Historically, racialization has been used as a means of oppressing certain groups and enriching others. However, there is no necessary reason racialization must lead to discrimination. In fact, racialization can also be used for positive purposes. Modern medicine often relies on racial categorizations to accurately diagnose and treat many diseases.

Ethnicity The most common ethnic distinctions are based on: Language Religion Style of dress History/perceived ancestry Learn Sociology Chapter 9: Race and Ethnicity in Society 9.3 Ethnicity LO: Compare and contrast race and ethnicity. Often, the terms race and ethnicity are used interchangeably. They are, however, quite different conceptually. While there appear to be relatively few races, there are many ethnicities. Ethnic groups see themselves as distinct from other groups, and although there are many ways to make cultural distinctions between people, the most common distinctions are based on language, religion, style of dress, history, or perceived ancestry. While many people consider Hispanics a race, both the United States census and forensic anthropology consider Hispanics to be several ethnic groups, categorized under the Caucasian racial category. Because of their general denial of the reality of racial categories, sociologists are generally more concerned with ethnicity than race. Despite their denial of race, however, sociologists quite often continue to act as though races are real and include race as a variable in much social science research because the consequences of racial categorizations have real consequences in society. Like race, ethnicity has often been used as justification for oppression of certain groups and the enrichment of others. This oppression has been the focus of considerable research in sociology and has shaped the development of the sociological imagination in significant ways.

Minority Groups Minority groups: Groups that society sets apart in some way and disadvantages due to the traits that set them apart Dominant group: A group that has greater power, privilege, and prestige than other groups Segregation: The physical or social isolation of a group of people from the rest of society Learn Sociology Chapter 9: Race and Ethnicity in Society 9.3 Ethnicity LO: Discuss the three major ways in which new minority groups emerge in a culture. When most people think of a minority group, they think of a group in a society that is numerically inferior. However, this definition is vague and misleading. Like race or ethnicity, the perceptions we take on minority groups depend a great deal on the way in which we choose to define the term. Sociologists define minority groups as groups that society sets apart in some away and disadvantages due to the traits that set them apart. Minority groups can thus be understood only in reference to dominant groups. A dominant group is a group that has greater power, privilege, or prestige than other groups. Dominant groups need not be numerical majorities. Rather, they simply wield a considerable amount of social power over other groups. For this reason, minority groups usually feel isolated or disconnected from the dominant social values. Sometimes they also become physically isolated, as in the case of segregation. Segregation often serves to increase tensions between the dominant and minority groups. There appears to be a natural tendency in humans to categorize people into in-groups and out-groups. Generally speaking, people tend to believe that the groups they belong to are superior to other groups. This leads to the development of prejudice and discrimination, which have historically created significant conflict between groups of people.

The Emergence of Minority Groups Sociologists recognize three major ways in which new minority groups emerge in a culture: Migration Expansion of political boundaries Creation within the society through social processes Learn Sociology Chapter 9: Race and Ethnicity in Society 9.3 Ethnicity LO: Discuss the three major ways in which new minority groups emerge in a culture. Dominant and minority groups appear in nearly every culture. There are a variety of ways that groups become dominant or minorities, with each minority group having its own story. Generally, however, sociologists recognize three major ways in which new minority groups emerge in a culture. Migration: As migrants cross the border, they vacate their place in the dominant culture and take their place among a minority group of immigrants. Migration can be voluntary or involuntary. Expansion of political boundaries. This may take any of several forms, including colonialism, war, or economic dominance. Minority groups are created within the society itself through social processes. Any group that is singled out within a society can be transformed into a minority groups, though the process may differ for each group.

Constructing Racial and Ethnic Identity Ethnic work: The process by which a person identifies with and constructs his or her identity Melting pot: A blending of ethnic traditions in a society Learn Sociology Chapter 9: Race and Ethnicity in Society 9.3 Ethnicity LO: Illustrate the four factors that influence the strength of a person’s sense of ethnic or racial identity. Sociologists have identified four factors that influence the strength of a person’s sense of ethnic or racial identity (Table 9-1). The first is the relative size of the group. Generally speaking, the larger the size of the group, the less influence it has in shaping your identity. The second factor is the power that the group wields in society. Again, groups that wield significant social power seem to have less influence on identification of racial or ethnic identity. The third factor that influences a person’s sense of identity is the appearance of members of the group. If the group has a distinguishing mode of dress, for example, that makes it stand out from the dominant group, it is more likely to be used as a point of identity. The final factor is discrimination. The more discriminated against a group is, the stronger the influence generally is on constructing racial or ethnic identity. This is because as a member of a discriminated-against group, you are likely to feel excluded or, more likely, to lack a sense of belonging with the dominant group and you are more likely to define yourself as a member of the minority group Sociologists use the term ethnic work to refer to the process by which a person identifies with and constructs her or his ethnic identity. This includes how people with strong ethnic identity maintain or enhance their identity through distinctions from the dominant culture. For people with weaker ethnic identities, the term is often used to refer to the ways in which a person seeks to discover or recover her or his ethnic heritage. While ethnic work is important for the development and maintenance of identity, it does have latent consequences. One is that the development of strong ethnic identity does tend to inhibit assimilation into the dominant culture. That is why the claim of America being a melting pot— a blending of ethnic traditions—has not materialized in the way sociologists once predicted. Instead, ethnic work has allowed groups to maintain unique and valued elements of their specific ethnic or racial groups.

Defining and Measuring Prejudice Prejudice: Beliefs or attitudes about a particular attitude Learn Sociology Chapter 9: Race and Ethnicity in Society 9.4 Prejudice LO: Discuss the key perspectives on prejudice. Prejudice refers to beliefs or attitudes about a particular group. Everyone has prejudices. These prejudices typically form very early in life and often become habitual. Many times, prejudices against groups of people are based on folklore and myth rather than on reality. Prejudicial attitudes are sometimes hard to change, and people often seek out selective evidence to justify their prejudices. It is important to note that prejudice is natural in the human species. Generally speaking, prejudices are harmless because they are merely attitudes that we have toward a particular idea. However, sometimes prejudices can have negative consequences, such as when they translate into behaviors that seek to disadvantage certain groups. Such behaviors are called discrimination. The extent of prejudice is hard to measure. Because prejudice is an attitude, it cannot be seen. Researchers must rely on the self-reporting of subjects for their information about prejudice. Often, prejudices are so ingrained in a person’s mentality that the person is unaware he or she holds such deep-seated prejudices. Additionally, even when people are aware of their particular prejudices, they may be unwilling to admit them to other people. An additional problem is that people frequently confuse prejudice and discrimination. While most of the time discrimination constitutes evidence of prejudice, the same cannot be said in reverse. It is not necessary that prejudicial attitudes lead to discriminatory action. Yet people often assume that prejudice automatically leads to discrimination. This fallacy plagues not only ordinary people but sociologists as well. Because discrimination is a behavior rather than an attitude, it is much easier to get a reliable measure than prejudice.

Origins and Perspectives on Prejudice Functionalism sees prejudice as functional for the maintenance of the individual or the social group. The conflict perspective analyzes prejudice in terms of competition over scarce social resources. Through the symbolic interactionist perspective, the specific ways in which prejudice is constructed and understood in society can be studied. Learn Sociology Chapter 9: Race and Ethnicity in Society 9.4 Prejudice LO: Discuss the key perspectives on prejudice. There is considerable debate among social scientists about the origins of prejudicial behavior. One thing that they all agree on, however, is that prejudice is universal in societies and among individuals. Functionalism sees prejudice as functional for the maintenance of the individual or the social group. It may be functional for the maintenance of an individual’s identity, because holding a prejudicial attitude against another group allows an individual to make positive comparisons with the out-group. Functionalism seeks to understand why a person would want to have a strong ethnic or racial identity. People use their identity to compare with other people and to develop a sense of belonging with a particular social group. Thus, people gain a positive sense of identity even through association with oppressed groups. Prejudice can be functional for a group because by emphasizing differences between groups, boundaries for membership and identification with groups are clarified. In this way, groups create their own distinct identities in comparison with other groups. The conflict perspective analyzes prejudice in terms of competition over scarce social resources. Prejudice is a means by which the dominant social group gains and secures access to scant resources. Prejudicial attitudes provide justifications for why minority groups are not entitled to the same resources as the dominant group. By perpetuating prejudice, the dominant group creates a means of social control by which not only member of its group but also other groups come to see unequal distribution of resources as normal or appropriate. Through the symbolic interactionist perspective, the specific ways in which prejudice is constructed and understood in society can be studied. For example, symbolic interactionists might try to understand how certain characteristics come to be associated with particular groups, as well as how these terms come to be used in society. This perspective is valuable in understanding how stereotypes are constructed and used in society.

Stereotypes Stereotypes: Generalizations that are applied to a group of people Scapegoats: Groups that are blamed for the problems of society that are not their fault Displacement: The process of individual feelings of hostility, inadequacy, or anger being directed against groups that are not the origins of those feelings Projection: The process whereby a person unconsciously projects his or her own characteristics onto others Learn Sociology Chapter 9: Race and Ethnicity in Society 9.4 Prejudice LO: Describe the nature of stereotypes. Stereotypes are generalizations that are applied to a group of people. Stereotyping can be seen as the primary mechanism through which prejudice operates. The power of stereotypes is that they are nearly impossible to disprove by examining individual cases. It is worth noting that not all prejudices are negative. People often have favorable prejudices toward in-groups and negative prejudices toward out-groups. Nor are prejudices necessarily a problem in society. When prejudices are kept private, they can sometimes serve the function of helping an individual navigate the social universe. It is only when prejudicial attitudes are translated into action that they cause social concern. When this happens, it often takes the form of scapegoating. Scapegoats are groups that are blamed for the problems in a society that are not their fault. Almost always, scapegoating is directed at groups with little social power. Research by sociologists suggests that prejudice and the accompanying scapegoating is often the result of displacement, in which individual feelings of inadequacy, hostility, or anger are directed against objects or groups that are not the origins of those feelings. The process through which displacement typically occurs is called projection. This is the process whereby a person unconsciously projects his or her own characteristics onto others. This is why many people who direct attacks toward a group of people are often socially similar to them in some way.

Discrimination and Racism Discrimination: Actions against a group that are designed to deny access to the same rights, privileges, and opportunities as the dominant group Racism: Discrimination that is directed at a particular race Institutional racism: The belief that racism is built into the structure of society, and that society is structured to favor the dominant group Antiracism: Ideologies or practices that seek to eliminate or ameliorate racism Learn Sociology Chapter 9: Race and Ethnicity in Society 9.5 Discrimination LO: Describe the difference between prejudice and discrimination. Although negative attitudes are generally not healthy, they are not generally socially harmful unless they translate into action. When prejudice leads to an action against a group, it is called discrimination. Usually, this takes the form of denying a particular group access to the same rights, privileges, or opportunities as the dominant group. Discrimination is more socially troublesome because behaviors are generally more harmful than beliefs. Because discrimination denies opportunities to particular classes of people, it tends to weaken society as a whole. Individuals who have particular skills, education, knowledge, or talents are systemically excluded from full participation in society. Thus, social progress is slowed, inevitably harming everyone. Racism is discrimination that is directed at a particular race. It usually takes place in the context of a belief that one racial group—usually the dominant group—is superior to others.. Although most people think of racism as occurring through the actions of individuals or small groups, sociologists recognize that racism can also be embedded in the structure of society. Termed institutional racism, it is the belief that society is structured to favor the dominant group. Racism, in other words, is built into the very fabric of society. Such racism is often hard to measure, however. Often, accusations of institutional racism come from actions against specific individuals and may not be indicative of a pervasive social discrimination. Sociologists consider racism to be harmful not only to individuals and groups but also to society as a whole. Groups that are marginalized in society lack opportunities for education, employment, and social advancement that improve the conditions of the general society. For this reason, many sociologists have begun studying ways in which racism can be eliminated in society. In the 1960s, the term antiracism gained popularity. The term refers to ideologies or practices that seek to eliminate or ameliorate racism.

Psychological Theories of Discrimination Frustration-aggression hypothesis: The idea that discrimination is the result of displaced anger for an individual’s inability to achieve highly desired goals Authoritarian personality theory: Authoritarianism is a personality trait of individuals that is the result of a poor upbringing Social-cognitive theory explains that stereotyping and discrimination are normal parts of information processing. Learn Sociology Chapter 9: Race and Ethnicity in Society 9.5 Discrimination LO: Analyze key theories of discrimination. Psychological theories of discrimination and racism focus primarily on the internal processes that take place within the individual. The emphasis is usually confined to the aspects of personality that an individual possesses, the basic values, beliefs, and stresses that a person maintains, or the ways in which individuals process information. While sociologists generally see such theories as incomplete, it is worth a cursory look at the major psychological theories of discrimination because they lay the foundation for other theories of discrimination. The frustration-aggression hypothesis is perhaps the most basic and easy to understand of the psychological theories. According to the frustration-aggression hypothesis, discrimination against other groups is the result of displaced anger for an individual’s ability to achieve highly desired goals. The anger frequently becomes directed at marginalized individuals or groups because they are less able to defend themselves or retaliate. Authoritarian personality theory was developed in the 1950s by sociologist Theodore Adorno. This theory suggests that authoritarianism is a personality trait of individuals rather than a societal construct. Adorno argued that the characteristics of authoritarian personality are developed in childhood when the child is denigrated by his or her parents. Children that are repeatedly embarrassed, put down, or subjugated in childhood are more likely to develop a series of characteristics as a defense against these parenting practices. Later, these characteristics are projected onto groups that are perceived as powerless or marginalized in order to give the individual a sense of social power and individual worth that he or she lacked as a child. Social-cognitive theory argues that stereotyping and discrimination are normal parts of each individual’s information processing. People make connections between traits that seem unusual to them and certain racial or ethnic groups. This creates the foundation for stereotypes about those groups of people. Even if the stereotype is based on a false correlation, because of the way in which individuals organize the world, the stereotypes are acted upon as if they were true.

Social-Psychological Theories of Discrimination Social identity theory: People desire a positive social identity, and will discriminate to elevate their own identity Realistic group conflict theory: Discrimination is the result of competition between groups for limited societal resources Social learning theory: People engage in prejudice and discrimination because they have been socialized to feel and behave in those ways Learn Sociology Chapter 9: Race and Ethnicity in Society 9.5 Discrimination LO: Analyze key theories of discrimination. Psychological theories of discrimination have been criticized because they exclude social forces in their explanation of discrimination. Social-psychological theories recognize the individual’s role in constructing and engaging in discrimination while at the same time recognizing the importance of social forces in influencing those behaviors. Social learning theories argue that people engage in prejudice and discrimination because they have been socialized to feel and behave in those ways. Significant others teach beliefs and behaviors that are hostile toward other groups. When an individual mimics those beliefs or behaviors, the person is reinforced with praise from trusted individuals. Eventually, behaviors that are reinforced will be maintained and built upon. Groups often compete with one another for societal resources. According to realistic group conflict theory, discrimination is the result of competition between groups for limited societal resources. Another social-psychological theory of discrimination is social identity theory. This theory begins with the assumption that people have a desire to build and maintain a positive social identity. This is often accomplished by the construction of meaning of group membership and with the assumption of the in-group’s superiority. When those boundaries are unclear, discrimination occurs as a means to re-clarify boundaries and return to a stable, positive social identity. This theory suggests that discrimination is lowest when all groups know and accept their position in the social hierarchy. Conversely, discrimination is greatest when minority groups attempt to increase social power by confusing the boundaries between themselves and the dominant group.

Social-Structural and Elite Theories Group position theory: When groups interact, the dominant group will promote social policies and attitudes that advantage themselves over other groups Critical race theory: A theory that examines the intersection of race, law, and power Learn Sociology Chapter 9: Race and Ethnicity in Society 9.5 Discrimination LO: Analyze key theories of discrimination. Social-psychological theories maintain an element of individual agency in their understanding of the origins of discrimination. In contrast, social-structural and elite theories are fully sociological. They argue that the structural relationships between groups are the basis for discrimination. All of the theories in this category share the basic assumptions that social systems are arranged in a hierarchical fashion and are controlled by a small group of people who are dominant in that group. Group position theory asserts that when groups interact, they are in a state of power imbalance. Inevitably, the dominant group will try to maintain its powerful position over the minority group by promoting social policies, attitudes, and beliefs that advantage the dominant group over others. Segregation provides an excellent example of this phenomenon. Because the dominant group has more social power, it is able to manipulate policies to its advantage and continue to thrive at the expense of other groups. Critical race theory seeks to understand how race, law, and social power operate to keep dominant groups in power. Critical race theory has its roots in Marxist theory. It assumes that institutional discrimination exists in many social institutions, including the legal and penal systems. The theory suggests that the legal system is used by dominant groups as a means of controlling minority groups. By putting minorities in prisons, dominant groups can control the labor market by keeping incarcerated minorities from working. Critical race theory seeks to use its critical understanding to combat the institutional discrimination in the legal and political systems that proliferates the systematic disadvantages of minorities.

Evolutionary Theories of Discrimination Evolutionary theory argues that discrimination is a behavioral adaptation to increase reproductive fitness. Learn Sociology Chapter 9: Race and Ethnicity in Society 9.5 Discrimination LO: Analyze key theories of discrimination. According to evolutionary theory, discrimination is a behavioral adaptation to increase reproductive fitness. In our evolutionary ancestry, helping others to survive was a risky game. There was no guarantee that the individual you helped would return the favor. However, it is generally more likely that the individual would reciprocate if he or she were related to you in some way. The closer the relation, the greater the likelihood of reciprocation. Therefore, humans evolved a disposition to aid individuals who are most like themselves. Individuals are also more likely to aid individuals who are similar and distrust those who are less similar to themselves. The greater the degree of perceived dissimilarity, the greater the distrust. So prejudice and discrimination appear to have an evolutionary component as well.

Theoretical Perspectives on Race and Ethnic Relations (slide 1 of 2) Functionalism Social Conflict Functionalism seeks to understand why a person would want to have a strong ethnic or racial identity. The conflict perspective analyzes prejudice in terms of competition over scarce social resources. Learn Sociology Chapter 9: Race and Ethnicity in Society 9.6 Theoretical Perspectives on Race and Ethnic Relations LO: Compare and contrast the ways in which the major theoretical perspectives understand race and racial relations. Functionalism sees prejudice as functional for the maintenance of the individual or the social group. It may be functional for the maintenance of an individual’s identity, because holding a prejudicial attitude against another group allows an individual to make positive comparisons with the out-group. Functionalism seeks to understand why a person would want to have a strong ethnic or racial identity. People use their identity to compare with other people and to develop a sense of belonging with a particular social group. Thus, people gain a positive sense of identity even through association with oppressed groups. Similarly, prejudice can be functional for a group as well because it serves to unite members in a common bond against another group. By emphasizing differences between groups, boundaries for membership and identification with groups are clarified. In this way, groups create their own distinct identities in comparison with other groups. The conflict perspective analyzes prejudice in terms of competition over scarce social resources. Prejudice is a means by which the dominant social group gains and secures access to scant resources. Prejudicial attitudes provide justifications for why minority groups are not entitled to the same resources as the dominant group. By perpetuating prejudice, the dominant group creates a means of social control by which not only members of their group but also other groups come to see unequal distribution of resources as normal or appropriate. The conflict theory has led to the development of many theories of prejudice and discrimination, such as group position theory and critical race. All of these theories have their roots in the writings of Karl Marx and have been influential in developing an understanding of prejudice and discrimination.

Theoretical Perspectives on Race and Ethnic Relations (slide 2 of 2) Symbolic Interactionism Biosocial Perspectives Symbolic interactionism attempts to understand how certain characteristics come to be associated with particular groups. The biosocial perspective suggests that prejudices have an innate component, even though specific targets or preferential attitudes are learned. Learn Sociology Chapter 9: Race and Ethnicity in Society 9.6 Theoretical Perspectives on Race and Ethnic Relations LO: Compare and contrast the ways in which the major theoretical perspectives understand race and racial relations. Through the symbolic interactionist perspective, the specific ways in which prejudice is constructed and understood in society can be studied. This perspective is valuable in understanding how stereotypes are constructed and used in society. Many social psychological theories of prejudice, such as social identity theory, have their roots in symbolic interactionism. Understanding how words used to describe races are connected to images of those races provides significant insight. Although most sociologists believe that prejudices are learned, the biosocial perspective suggests that prejudices may have an innate component as well. Other animals also display prejudice in the form of preferring members of their own group or troop to individuals from other groups. As human beings were emerging on the planet, they undoubtedly encountered conflicts with other groups. Those groups that could most successfully navigate conflicts were more successful than other groups. Prejudice provided a means by which in-group and out-groups distinctions could be maintained, thus ensuring that scarce resources were given preferentially to members of the in-group. As human culture developed, these basic predispositions were elaborated upon over time and increased in complexity. Biosociologists recognize that although prejudice may have an innate component, the specific target of preferential attitudes are in fact a learned behavior. In other words, while a person may have an inborn predisposition to maintain prejudicial attitudes, the specific groups that those attitudes are aimed at are learned through the process of socialization. Thus, prejudices can be both innate and learned.

Racial and Ethnic Relations in the United States Prejudice and discrimination continue to manifest themselves in the actions of individuals, as well as in American society as a whole. While often the controversies are largely academic—such as what terms are appropriate to describe a particular group—many times the issues have broader social consequences. Learn Sociology Chapter 9: Race and Ethnicity in Society 9.7 Racial and Ethnic Relations in the United States LO: Compare and contrast the major racial groups in the United States and how intersection theory dictates assumptions. Despite much progress in the area of racial and ethnic relations in the United States, tension between racial and ethnic groups still exists. Prejudice and discrimination continue to manifest themselves in the actions of individuals, as well as in American society as a whole. While often the controversies are largely academic—such as what terms are appropriate to describe a particular group—many times the issues have broader social consequences. Long-term study of racial and ethnic relations reveals several interesting points: It is difficult to say that discrimination has decreased. Rather, it seems as though the emphasis of discriminatory behavior moves from one group to another. Minority groups have become more organized in their response to discrimination. Sometimes, organized groups from different minority statuses form coalitions to promote the common interests of both groups. The way in which debate over racial and ethnic issues is framed and discussed strongly influences how the situation is resolved. Often, minority groups cluster into regions (Figure 9-7), which makes the debate more real in some areas than in others. The visibility of minority groups influences the perceptions that people have about those groups. As the percentage of different racial and ethnic groups changes relative to the dominant group, views about those groups and their place in society will necessarily change as well. All of these factors, as well as others, influence the state of racial and ethnic relations in America today.

European Americans Assimilation: The adoption of the values, beliefs, and practices of the dominant culture Learn Sociology Chapter 9: Race and Ethnicity in Society 9.7 Racial and Ethnic Relations in the United States LO: Compare and contrast the major racial groups in the United States and how intersection theory dictates assumptions. In large part, this country was settled by immigrants from Europe seeking greater religious and political liberty. Because the country was founded largely by white European, this group became the dominant group and established the cultural foundations for the entire country. Initially, European immigrants were the minority, since the land was occupied by Native Americans. However, Native Americans were fragmented into more than 250 tribes, all with complex cultures but relatively low technological sophistication. The immigrants who settled the lands from Europe were also of more than one cultural background. However, exposure and familiarity to the traditions of other European nations, similar technology, and a common goal of survival in a new world unified the settlers with a common goal. For this reason, it was comparatively easy to overcome any resistance by the natives. Thus, whites became the dominant group in settled areas rather rapidly and constructed cultural values and norms that became the cornerstone of American culture. Even among white immigrants, a hierarchy quickly emerged, with immigrants from England seen as superior to immigrants from other European nations. Those who emigrated from Europe to America were expected to assimilate. That is, they were expected to adopt the values, beliefs, and practices of the dominant culture. Often, this meant abandoning the unique customs, practices, and language of their native nationalities. Generally, children of immigrants assimilated rather quickly and helped to reinforce the dominant cultural norms. Each subsequent generation became more and more uniquely American and less and less a product of its native culture. The more American these individuals became, the more they shaped policy that influenced the way in which others would be viewed and treated in American culture.

African Americans African Americans came to the United States as indentured servants and slaves. After slavery was abolished, the Supreme Court established a doctrine of “separate but equal.” Affirmative action: Policies that mandates preferential hiring, promotion, and college admission of historically disadvantaged groups Learn Sociology Chapter 9: Race and Ethnicity in Society 9.7 Racial and Ethnic Relations in the United States LO: Compare and contrast the major racial groups in the United States and how intersection theory dictates assumptions. The first African immigrants came to America as indentured servants. Slavery came later as the benefits of free labor and the ease of capturing slaves became evident. By the time of the first American census in 1790, nearly 750,000 individuals of African descent populated America—most of them as slaves. Advocates of slavery attempted to justify the practice by claiming that Africans were somehow less human than other races and therefore less intelligent and less civilized. They ultimately argued that slavery was a benefit to the black race because it offered them opportunities to become more civilized. After slavery was abolished, Southern states passed a series of statutes to segregate blacks and whites. These statutes were upheld by the Supreme Court in the case of Plessy vs. Ferguson where the Court established the doctrine of separate but equal. Of course, these accommodations were rarely equal. Blacks were systematically excluded from voting in the primary elections until 1944, when the Supreme Court ruled that political primaries must be open to all voters. In 1954 the Supreme Court overturned Plessy vs. Ferguson and ruled that blacks were legally entitled to attend the same schools as whites. In 1964, the Civil Rights Act became law, making it illegal to discriminate on the basis of race. Despite the progress that has been made, blacks still lag behind whites in many areas. On the whole, African Americans continue to lag behind whites in political representation, although gains are being made. African Americans are also expanding into the middle class. Affirmative action, a set of policies that encourages or mandates preferential hiring or admissions for previously oppressed minorities, has also helped many African Americans to improve their quality of life. The programs appear to have helped somewhat to improve the standard of living for African Americans. Nearly two thirds of African-American families today earn more than $50,000 a year, and 10% earn more than $100,000 a year. Still, on average, African Americans earn only about 58% of what whites earn (Figure 9-8). As a percentage of the population, African Americans are still more likely than whites to live in poverty. Although they make up only about 13% of the population, African Americans make up 28% of all arrests. Blacks are also more likely to be convicted of crimes and to get harsher sentences than whites. Additionally, blacks are more likely to be the victims of crime. They are six times as likely to be murdered as whites.

Hispanic Americans Hispanics are the largest and fastest-growing minority group in the United States. Hispanics are a diverse ethnic group. Country of nationality-rather than language or ethnic identification-defines most Hispanics. Learn Sociology Chapter 9: Race and Ethnicity in Society 9.7 Racial and Ethnic Relations in the United States LO: Compare and contrast the major racial groups in the United States and how intersection theory dictates assumptions. Hispanics are the largest and fastest-growing minority group in the United States. Census counts estimate around 44 million Hispanics in America, with an estimated 9 million living in the United States illegally. The influx of illegal immigration has become an area of political and social concern. Many believe that illegal immigration harms the US economy because immigrants avail themselves of public resources such as schools and medical care, which drives up the cost of maintaining those services. Critics also contend that immigrants take jobs from citizens who may be looking for work, because the immigrants will typically work for less money and fewer benefits. On the other hand, immigrants fill this labor void with cheap labor that helps keep prices low and products readily available. Although we do pay a social cost to educate the children of immigrants, this is a small price to pay for their continued participation in the American labor market. These opposing views have fueled the debate about the social benefits and costs of illegal immigration. Most people agree that the United States needs to reform its immigration policy, but there is little agreement on what that reform should look like. Although they are often lumped together as a single group, connected by a single language, Hispanics are a diverse ethnic group that encompasses many traditions and cultures. The country of nationality—rather than the language or ethnic identification—defines most Hispanics. When compared to white Americans, Hispanics are underrepresented in media and politics. Currently, Hispanics make up just under 15% of the population of America but have only three seats in the Senate and 5% of the seats in the House of Representatives. When compared with white Americans, Hispanics are generally of lower social class, make less money, have lower educational attainment and higher unemployment and poverty. Hispanics are also less likely to own their own homes. Hispanics are the group with the highest high school dropout rate and the group that is least likely to attend college. Additionally, Hispanics have the highest rate of teen pregnancy of any racial or ethnic group. Note that these figures aggregate all Hispanics. There are differences in social class, income, and education among Hispanics with different countries of origin.

Asian Americans Asian Americans are grouped together by continent of origin but represent a diversity of cultures. Asian Americans have the highest income levels of all racial or ethnic groups, but have higher poverty rates than whites. Sociologists base the success of Asian Americans on: Family life Ties to traditional values stressing self-discipline, hard work, and thrift Strong values tie to education and achievement High tolerance for assimilation Learn Sociology Chapter 9: Race and Ethnicity in Society 9.7 Racial and Ethnic Relations in the United States LO: Compare and contrast the major racial groups in the United States and how intersection theory dictates assumptions. Like Hispanics, Asian Americans represent a diversity of cultures and traditions. There are roughly 13 million people of Asian descent living the United States, representing more than a dozen nations. As a whole, the income of Asian Americans is the highest of every racial or ethnic group, including whites. At the same time, Asians also have a higher poverty rate than whites. This can be broken down largely by country of origin, with individuals from Southeast Asia having significantly higher poverty rates than individuals from Japan or China. Asian Americans are no stranger to discrimination and prejudice. In the mid 1800s, many immigrants were lured from Asian with promises of good wages to build railroad lines across the United States. Although the wages were good by Chinese standards, the conditions were often brutal. At its peak, 90% of the railroad workers for the Central Pacific Railroad were from China. California passed a law charging Chinese and other immigrants a fee to work in the state, cutting deeply into the wages of already exploited workers. After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, Japanese immigrants and citizens of Japanese descent were systematically rounded up and forced to live in large camps. The American government justified the forced internment through fears of sabotage or spying against America. Individuals who were interned in these camps were never charged with a crime, nor were there any opportunities for a trial or for appeals. There are several factors that sociologists have identified for the relative success of Asian Americans. One is family life. Compared to other racial and ethnic groups, Asian American children are more likely to live in two-parent families. These families have incomes above the median income for American families. Additionally, Asian Americans are least likely to be born to teenage mothers or in single-parent households. Asian American families are typically rooted in traditional values that stress self-discipline, hard work, and thrift. Asian American children are strongly socialized toward valuing education and achievement. Because of the strong socialization toward education and achievement, Asian Americans have very high rates of high school and college graduation. This high rate of college graduation creates opportunities for economic success that place Asian American families high on the socioeconomic ladder. Finally, a strong trend of assimilation has also contributed to the success of Asian Americans in modern society. Asian Americans have the highest rate of intermarriage.

Native Americans Native Americans are a diverse group, comprising more than 250 distinct tribes. Today, Native Americans exist largely on the margins of society. Half of the population lives in rural areas. Native Americans have the lowest life expectancy of any racial or ethnic group and are most likely to live in poverty. Pan-Indianism: The idea that all Native Americans share a common identity that is rooted in the experiences of past prejudice and discrimination Learn Sociology Chapter 9: Race and Ethnicity in Society 9.7 Racial and Ethnic Relations in the United States LO: Compare and contrast the major racial groups in the United States and how intersection theory dictates assumptions. When the first European settlers landed in America, they found it inhabited by nearly 250 tribes of native people totaling approximately 10 million people. As the settlers expanded, they encroached upon the lands of the native people, setting the stage for significant conflict. Smallpox and other diseases that Europeans brought with them caused the native populations to plummet to 250,000 in 1890. As European settlers encroached on Native American lands, the federal government adopted policies of systemic deception and trickery to maintain dominance. As European settlements expanded westward, discrimination against Native Americans intensified. In 1838, the United States Army relocated 15,000 Cherokee. More than 4,000 Native Americans died. In 1890, more than 300 Native American men, women, and children were slaughtered at Wounded Knee, South Dakota, by the US cavalry. Today, Native Americans exist largely on the margins of society. A sizable percentage of Native Americans are isolated in reservations scattered throughout the nation. Half of the populations live in rural areas. Years of attempted genocide, violent discrimination, and attempts to destroy Native American culture have fueled systemic disadvantages among Native American populations. Native Americans have the lowest life expectancy of any racial or ethnic group. They are also the group most likely to live in poverty. Only about 14% of Native American graduate from college. Rates of suicide are also the highest among racial and ethnic groups. Native Americans appear to be slowly reversing those trends. A string of legal victories in the 1960s and 1970s have created opportunities for them to open businesses such as casinos and other tourist attractions that have netted considerable sums of money. Despite the fact that Native Americans are an extremely diverse group, comprising more than 250 distinct tribes, the common fate shared by all of them at the hands of the United States government has led to pan-Indianism, the idea that all Native Americans share a common identity rooted in the experiences of past prejudice and discrimination.

Intersectionality Theory The core assumption of intersectionality theory is that variables that influence life changes intersect and work in groups to create interlocking systems of oppression. Learn Sociology Chapter 9: Race and Ethnicity in Society 9.7 Racial and Ethnic Relations in the United States LO: Compare and contrast the major racial groups in the United States and how intersection theory dictates assumptions. The core assumption of intersectionality theory is that variables that influence life chances do not operate alone. Instead, variables intersect and work in groups to create what Collins describes as interlocking systems of oppression (Figure 9-9). Intersection theory explores the ways in which race, social class, gender, and other variables interact with one another to create advantages or disadvantages in life. For example, research shows that African Americans, on average, earn less than whites, and that women, on average, earn less than men. Intersection theory takes this knowledge a step further and asks how the earnings of an African-American woman would compare with either alternative. Intersectionality theory predicts that African-American women would earn less than either an African-American male or a white woman because race and gender intersect to create multiple layers of social disadvantage. Social class becomes relevant because it influences the opportunities for employment and the types of the jobs that are available. An African-American woman living in the inner city would likely have a significantly lower income than an African-American woman living in a suburban neighborhood.

Immigration and Emigration Immigration: The movement of people into a given country Emigration: The movement of people out of a given country Learn Sociology Chapter 9: Race and Ethnicity in Society 9.8 Key Issues in the Future of Race and Ethnicity LO: Describe the key issues regarding race and ethnicity in the United States. Immigration refers to people moving into a country. America, founded by immigrants from other nations, has often welcomed those who wish to reap the benefits of coming to America. At the same time, immigration has often led to feelings of paranoia and mistrust. Today, immigration remains one of the most contested issues in American politics. Many people fear that unchecked immigration is harmful to America. Critics of immigration argue that immigrants take jobs away from citizens and absorb resources such as health care and education that should be given preferentially to citizens. Additionally, many people fear that unchecked immigration will change the politics and culture of the United States, thus threatening what many perceive as the “American way of life.” The face of immigration has changed over time. Early in American history, immigrants most commonly came from Western Europe or from Africa as slaves. Today, immigrants are much more diverse in terms of their country of origin. Immigrants come to America for a variety of reasons. The most common are improved economic opportunities and to escape political persecution. As political and economic circumstances change throughout the world, the influx of immigration from various regions of the world will ebb and flow. Less common in America is emigration— movement out of a given nation. Rates of emigration from America are far less than rates of immigration, although levels of emigration from America are increasing slowly. Lower costs of living and an increasingly positive attitude toward American expatriates have made emigration an attractive option for middle-class retirees seeking a high quality of life.

Affirmative Action President John F. Kennedy initiated policies of affirmative action to promote differential hiring, promotion, and college admission to minority groups. Its impact has been marginal due to inadequate enforcement. Learn Sociology Chapter 9: Race and Ethnicity in Society 9.8 Key Issues in the Future of Race and Ethnicity LO: Describe the key issues regarding race and ethnicity in the United States. In an effort to increase opportunities for minorities, President John F. Kennedy initiated policies of affirmative action, which promoted differential hiring, promotion, and college admission for minority groups (including women). Research has shown the impact of these programs to be quite modest. Part of the reason for this is that affirmative action is often inadequately enforced. Additionally, affirmative action is about ensuring opportunity rather than ensuring a particular outcome. Critics argue that such policies are nothing more than reverse discrimination because they give preferential treatment to minority groups over the dominant groups. They also argue that affirmative action can stigmatize people who benefit from it, since others might believe that they got their job because of their race or sex rather than through personal merit. Proponents of affirmative action argue that the program is warranted restitution for past discrimination and that affirmative action is the most efficient way to achieve equality of opportunity. They also argue that the promotion of women and minorities strengthens society because it makes social institutions more diverse. In response to the controversy of affirmative action, several states have attempted to address the issue through amendments to state constitutions. Michigan and Nebraska passed amendments that prohibit public institutions from using race or sex as criteria for hiring, promotions, or college admissions. However, in several other states, attempts at changing the law have failed. There is little doubt that the debate on affirmative action will continue for some time to come.