Nonrenewable Energy Resources

Key Concepts Available energy alternatives Oil resources Natural gas resources Coal resources Nuclear fission and fusion

Evaluating Energy Resources Renewable energy Non-renewable energy Future availability Net energy yield Costs Environmental effects

Important Nonrenewable Energy Sources

North American Energy Resources

Active drilling sites LOUISIANA ALABAMA GEORGIA MISSISSIPPI TEXAS FLORIDA GULF OF MEXICO Active drilling sites

70 60 50 40 Oil price per barrel 30 20 (1997 dollars) 10 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 Year

Oil (million barrels per day) 30 History Projections 25 20 Net imports Consumption Oil (million barrels per day) 15 10 Domestic supply 5 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 Year

Oil (million barrels per day) History Projections 120 100 80 Total Oil (million barrels per day) 60 Developed 40 20 Developing 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 Year

Oil Petroleum (crude oil) Recovery Petrochemicals Refining Transporting

Conventional Oil: Advantages Relatively low cost High net energy yield Efficient distribution system

Conventional Oil: Disadvantages Running out Low prices encourage waste Air pollution and Greenhouse gases Water pollution

Arctic National Wildlife Refuge Controversy: Trade-offs Would create jobs Oil resources are uncertain Uncertain environmental impacts Drilling controversies

Drilling for Oil and Natural Gas National Wildlife Refuge Trade-Offs Drilling for Oil and Natural Gas In Alaska’s Arctic National Wildlife Refuge Advantages Disadvantages Could increase U.S oil and natural gas supplies Could reduce oil imports slightly Would bring jobs and oil revenue to Alaska May lower oil prices slightly Oil companies have developed Alaskan Oil fields without significant harm New drilling techniques will leave little environ- mental impact Only 19% of finding oil equal to what U.S. consumes in 7-24 months Too little potential oil to significantly reduce oil imports Costs too high and potential oil supply too little to lower energy prices Studies show considerable oil spills and other environmental damage from Alaskan oil fields Potential degradation of refuge not worth the risk Unnecessary if improved slant drilling allows oil to be drilled from outside the refuge

Oil Shale and Tar Sands Oil shale Tar sand Bitumen Kerogen

Trade-Offs Advantages Disadvantages Heavy Oils from Oil Shale and Oil Sand Advantages Disadvantages High cost (oil shale) Moderate cost (oil sand) Low net energy yield Large potential supplies, especially oil sands in Canada Large amount of water needed for processing Easily transported within and between countries Severe land disruption from surface mining Water pollution from mining residues Efficient distribution system in place Air pollution when burned Technology is well developed CO2 emissions when burned

Natural Gas 50-90% methane Conventional gas Unconventional gas Methane hydrate Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) Liquefied natural gas (LNG) Approximate 200 year supply

Conventional Natural Gas Trade-Offs Conventional Natural Gas Advantages Disadvantages Ample supplies (125 years) Nonrenewable resource High net energy yield Releases CO2 when burned Low cost (with huge subsidies) Methane (a greenhouse gas) can leak from pipelines Less air pollution than other fossil fuels Difficult to transfer from one country to another Lower CO2 emissions than other fossil fuels Shipped across ocean as highly explosive LNG Moderate environmental impact Sometimes burned off and wasted at wells because of low price Low land use Easily transported by pipeline Requires pipelines Good fuel for fuel cells and gas turbines

Coal Stages of coal formation Primarily strip-mined Used mostly for generating electricity Enough coal for about 1000 years High environmental impact Coal gasification and liquefaction

Coal Formation and Types

Trade-Offs Advantages Disadvantages Coal Advantages Disadvantages Ample supplies (225–900 years) Very high environmental impact Severe land disturbance, air pollution, and water pollution High net energy yield Low cost (with huge subsidies) High land use (including mining) Mining and combustion technology well-developed Severe threat to human health High CO2 emissions when burned Air pollution can be reduced with improved technology (but adds to cost) Releases radioactive particles and mercury into air

Trade-Offs Advantages Disadvantages Synthetic Fuels Advantages Disadvantages Large potential supply Low to moderate net energy yield Higher cost than coal Vehicle fuel Requires mining 50% more coal High environmental impact Moderate cost (with large government subsidies) Increased surface mining of coal High water use Lower air pollution when burned than coal High CO2 emissions when burned

Nuclear Energy Fission reactors Uranium-235 Potentially dangerous Radioactive wastes

Types of Radiation Alpha Particles Beta Particles Gamma Rays

Alpha Particles Occurs in atoms with Z > 83 Helium nucleus Large, slow moving and not very penetrating. Easy to shield against Emission lowers atomic mass by 4 and atomic number by 2

Beta Particles Occurs in atoms with too high a proton/neutron ration High energy electron from the nucleus Small and fast, more dangerous Daughter atom is same mass but higher atomic number than the parent atom

Gamma Rays Emitted when nuclei stabilize Extremely high energy photons that travel at the speed of light Exposure is very dangerous Emission results is a more stable state for the same atom

Locations of U.S. Nuclear Power Plants 1 1 Operational Yucca Mountain high-level nuclear waste storage site Decommissioned

Salem Generating Plant, Lower Alloways Creek, NJ

Decommissioning of reactor Prospective “closed” end of fuel cycle Nuclear Fuel cycle Fuel assemblies Decommissioning of reactor Reactor Enrichment UF6 Fuel fabrication (conversion of enriched UF6 to UO2 and fabrication of fuel assemblies) Temporary storage of spent fuel assemblies underwater or in dry casks Uranium 235 as UF6 Plutonium-239 as PuO2 Conversion of U3 O8 to UF6 Spent fuel reprocessing Low level radiation with long half-life Geologic disposal of moderate and high-level radioactive wastes Open fuel cycle today Prospective “closed” end of fuel cycle

Conventional Nuclear Fuel Cycle Trade-Offs Conventional Nuclear Fuel Cycle Advantages Disadvantages Large fuel supply High cost (even with large subsidies) Low environmental impact (without accidents) Low net energy yield High environmental impact (with major accidents) Emits 1/6 as much CO2 as coal Moderate land disruption and water pollution (without accidents) Catastrophic accidents can happen (Chernobyl) No widely acceptable solution for long-term storage of radioactive wastes and decommissioning worn-out plants Moderate land use Low risk of accidents because of multiple safety systems (except in 35 poorly designed and run reactors in former Soviet Union and Eastern Europe) Subject to terrorist attacks Spreads knowledge and technology for building nuclear weapons

Serious Nuclear Accidents Three Mile Island (1979) Chernobyl (1986)

                                                                                                                                                                          

Three Mile Island, Pennsylvania

Chernobyl Reactor After Accident

Radiation Plume From Chernobyl Nuclear Accident - 26 Apr 86

Dealing with Nuclear Waste High- and low-level wastes Terrorist threats Underground burial Disposal in space Burial in ice sheets Dumping into subduction zones Burial in ocean mud Conversion into harmless materials

Yucca Mountain Controversy Wastes stored and guarded in one place Possible long-term groundwater contamination Security and safety concerns during waste transport to the site

Nuclear power plants Yucca Mountain Railroads Highways

Permanent Underground Disposal of Nuclear Wastes Storage Containers Fuel rod Primary canister Ground Level Overpack container sealed Unloaded from train Personnel elevator Air shaft Nuclear waste shaft Underground Buried and capped Lowered down shaft

Yucca Mountain, Nevada Cinder Cone Volcanoes

Nuclear Alternatives New reactor designs Breeder nuclear fission reactors Nuclear fusion