Presentation by Joseph K. Berry W.M. Keck Scholar in Geosciences, University of Denver Principal, Berry & Associates // Spatial Information Systems 2000 S. College Ave, Suite 300, Fort Collins, CO Phone: (970) Website at Geotechnology in Transition: Evolution, Current Practice, Trends and Future Directions Evolution, Current Practice, Trends and Future Directions

Where Are Headed? (Berry) This presentation investigates the context, conditions and forces driving the transition from… ― Maps to Mapped Data, ― to Map Analysis, ― to Multimedia Mapping ― and beyond (Future Directions) It does so by first establishing Geotechnology’s Evolution, then describing the duality of current Trends of advancing both descriptive mapping and prescriptive analysis, and finally proposing probable Future that will shake the very foundation of spatial data configuration and utility PowerPoint posted at

Historical Setting and GIS Evolution Spatial Database Management …links computer mapping with database capabilities (80s) Computer Mapping …automates the cartographic process (70s) Multimedia Mapping …full integration of GIS, Internet and visualization technologies (00s) (Berry) Map Analysis …representation of relationships within and among mapped data (90s) Manual Mapping for 8,000+ years We have been mapping for thousands of years with the primary of navigation through unfamiliar terrain and seas, with emphasis on precise placement of physical features. Where is What Why and So What Wow!!! …did you see that …but the last four decades have radically changed the very nature of maps and how they are used— the very nature of maps and how they are used— More …future directions in Geotechnology (10s) Part 1 Part 2 Part 3 Where

(Nanotechnology) Geotechnology (Biotechnology) GPS/GIS/RS Modeling involves analysis of spatial relationships and patterns (numerical analysis) PrescriptiveModeling Mapping involves precise placement (delineation) of physical features (graphical inventory) DescriptiveMapping Geotechnology is one of the three "mega technologies" for the 21st century and promises to forever change how we conceptualize, utilize and visualize spatial relationships in scientific research and commercial applications (U.S. Department of Labor) Why and So What Global Positioning System (location and navigation) Geographic Information Systems (map and analyze) Where is What (Berry) Remote Sensing (measure and classify) The Spatial Triad

Desktop Mapping Framework (Vector, Discrete) Click on… Select Theme Zoom Pan InfoToolThemeTable Distance QueryBuilder …identify tall aspen stands Big …over 400,000m 2 (40ha)? : Object ID X,YX,YX,Y : Feature Species etc. Feature Species etc. : : : : Object ID Aw : : : :SpatialTableAttributeTable Discrete, irregular map features (objects) Points, Lines and Areas (Berry)

MAP Analysis Framework (Raster, Continuous) Click on… Zoom Pan Rotate Display ShadingManager Continuous, regular grid cells (objects) Points, Lines, Areas and Surfaces : --, --, --, --, --, 2438, --, --, --, --, --, :GridTable GridAnalysis …calculate a slope map and drape on the elevation surface (Berry)

Map Analysis Evolution (SA and SS) Traditional GIS Points, Lines, Polygons Points, Lines, Polygons Discrete Objects Discrete Objects Mapping and Geo-query Mapping and Geo-query Forest Inventory Map Traditional Statistics Mean, StDev (Normal Curve) Mean, StDev (Normal Curve) Central Tendency Central Tendency Typical Response (scalar) Typical Response (scalar) Minimum= 5.4 ppm Maximum= ppm Mean= 22.4 ppm StDEV= 15.5 Spatial Statistics Map of Variance (gradient) Map of Variance (gradient) Spatial Distribution Spatial Distribution Numerical Spatial Relationships Numerical Spatial Relationships Spatial Distribution (Surface) (Berry) Part 1 Spatial Analysis Cells, Surfaces Cells, Surfaces Continuous Geographic Space Continuous Geographic Space Contextual Spatial Relationships Contextual Spatial Relationships TerrainSlopeSurface

Relative scale: 1 =.05 minutes Travel-Time for Our Store to Everywhere OUR STORE …close to the store (blue) (Berry) A store’s Travelshed identifies the relative driving time from every location to the store— …analogous to a “watershed” …analogous to a “watershed” (See Location, Location: Retail Sales Competition Analysis, (See Location, Location: Retail Sales Competition Analysis,

Travel-Time for Competitor Stores Ocean Travel-Time maps from several stores treating highway travel as four times faster than city streets. Blue tones indicate locations that are close to a store (estimated twelve minute drive or less). Customer data can be appended with travel-time distances and analyzed for spatial relationships in sales and demographic factors. Our Store (#111) Ocean Competitor 1 Ocean Competitor 2 Ocean Competitor 3 Ocean Competitor 4 Ocean Competitor 5 (Berry)

Travel-Time Surfaces (Our Store & Competitor #4) Blue tones indicate locations that are close to a store (estimated twelve minute drive or less). Increasingly warmer tones form a bowl-like surface with larger travel-time values identifying locations that are farther away. Our Store Competitor (Berry)

Competition Map (Our Store & Competitor #4) The travel-time surfaces for two stores can be compared (subtracted) to identify the relative access advantages throughout the project area. Zero values indicate the same travel-time to both stores (equidistant travel-time) …yellow tones identifying the Combat Zone ; green Our Store advantage; red Competitor #4 advantage Our Store Competitor Negative Positive Our Advantage Competitors (Berry) (See Location, Location: Retail Sales Competition Analysis, (See Location, Location: Retail Sales Competition Analysis,

Map Analysis Evolution (SA and SS) Traditional GIS Points, Lines, Polygons Points, Lines, Polygons Discrete Objects Discrete Objects Mapping and Geo-query Mapping and Geo-query Forest Inventory Map Spatial Analysis Cells, Surfaces Cells, Surfaces Continuous Geographic Space Continuous Geographic Space Contextual Spatial Relationships Contextual Spatial Relationships StoreTravel-Time(Surface) (Berry) Traditional Statistics Mean, StDev (Normal Curve) Mean, StDev (Normal Curve) Central Tendency Central Tendency Typical Response (scalar) Typical Response (scalar) Minimum= 5.4 ppm Maximum= ppm Mean= 22.4 ppm StDev= 15.5 Spatial Statistics Map of Variance (gradient) Map of Variance (gradient) Spatial Distribution Spatial Distribution Numerical Spatial Relationships Numerical Spatial Relationships Spatial Distribution (Surface)

GeoExploration vs. GeoScience (Berry) Continuous Spatial Distribution Discrete Spatial Object 22.0 Spatially Generalized Spatially Detailed Map Analysis Geographic Space Map Analysis map-ematically relates patterns within and among continuous spatial distributions (Map Surfaces)— spatial analysis and statistics (GeoScience) (Geographic Distribution) Average = 22.0 StDev = 18.7 Desktop Mapping Data Space Field Data Standard Normal Curve Desktop Mapping graphically links generalized statistics to discrete spatial objects (Points, Lines, Polygons)— non-spatial analysis (GeoExploration) X, Y, Value Point Sampled Data (Numeric Distribution) “Maps are numbers first, pictures later” Adjacent Parcels High Pocket (See Beyond Mapping III, “Epilog”,, ) (See Beyond Mapping III, “Epilog”, Technical and Cultural Shifts in the GIS Paradigm, )

Spatial Interpolation (Spatial Distribution) The “iterative smoothing” process is similar to slapping a big chunk of modeler’s clay over the “data spikes,” then taking a knife and cutting away the excess to leave a continuous surface that encapsulates the peaks and valleys implied in the original field samples …mapping the Variance (digital slide show SSTAT) SSTAT (Berry) = …repeated smoothing slowly “erodes” the data surface to a flat plane = AVERAGE

Visualizing Spatial Relationships What spatial relationships do you SEE? …do relatively high levels of P often occur with high levels of K and N? …how often? …where? (Berry) Phosphorous (P) Geographic Distribution

…groups of “floating balls” in data space identify locations in the field with similar data patterns– data zones Spatial Data Mining Geographic Space Relatively low responses in P, K and N Relatively high responses in P, K and N Clustered Data Zones Map surfaces are clustered to identify data pattern groups Clustering Maps Data Space …other techniques, such as Level Slicing, Similarity and Map Regression, can be used to discover relationships among map layers …map-ematics/statistics (Berry) (See Beyond Mapping III, “Topic 16”, Characterizing Spatial Patterns and Relationships, (See Beyond Mapping III, “Topic 16”, Characterizing Spatial Patterns and Relationships,

The Precision Ag Process (Fertility example) As a combine moves through a field it 1) uses GPS to check its location then 2) checks the yield at that location to 3) create a continuous map of the 2) checks the yield at that location to 3) create a continuous map of the yield variation every few feet. This map is yield variation every few feet. This map is 4) combined with soil, terrain and other maps to 4) combined with soil, terrain and other maps to derive 5) a “Prescription Map” that is used to derive 5) a “Prescription Map” that is used to 6) adjust fertilization levels every few feet 6) adjust fertilization levels every few feet in the field (variable rate application). in the field (variable rate application). Farm dB Step 4) Map Analysis On-the-Fly Yield Map Steps 1) – 3) Prescription Map Step 5) Zone 1 Zone 3 Zone 2 Step 6) Variable Rate Application Cyber-Farmer, Circa 1992 (Berry) (See Who’s Minding the Farm, (See Who’s Minding the Farm,

Map Analysis representation of relationships within and among mapped data (90s) l Spatial Analysis (Contextual) l Spatial Statistics (Numerical) Map-ematics Multimedia Mapping full integration of GIS, Internet and visualization technologies (00s) l Map Delivery/Devices l Map Display l Geospatial Multimedia l Virtual Reality Knock-your-socks-off Spatial Database Management links computer mapping with database capabilities (80s) Computer Mapping automates the cartographic process (70s) Recall that in the beginning we had… Mapping and Geo-query (Berry) Part 1 …4 thrusts driving MMM Part 2

4) Virtual Reality Rendered Scenes Multimedia Mapping (00’s …now) 1) Map Delivery/Devices GPS/GIS Enabled Devices and Internet Mapping Part 2 (Berry) 2) Map Display Interactive Maps Animated Maps 3) Geospatial Multimedia Maps with Integrated Photos Photos Video Video Audio Audio Text Text Data Data

3-D Visualization Approaches (Mega-Trend #4) Image Draping -- is an established technique in GIS. Draping a topographic or thematic map onto a 3-D terrain surface is effective but relies on abstract colors, shading and symbols. SportsTracker (MapTrek, 1998) “Map Abstraction” (Berry)

Landscape Visualization (Rendering Technique) Step 1) 3-D Terrain Surface Step 2) Polygon Containers “Laying the Carpet” Step 3) Surface Texture Step 5) Final Composition Step 6) Atmospheric Effects Step 4) Tree Objects “Pouring the Trees” (Berry) (See Beyond Mapping III, “Topic 12”, Landscape Visualization, (See Beyond Mapping III, “Topic 12”, Landscape Visualization,

Visualizing Landscape Impacts (GIS Rendering) (Berry) Virtual Forest (Innovative GIS Solutions, 1998)

Visualizing Landscape Impacts (Clear cut) (Berry) Virtual Forest (Innovative GIS Solutions, 1998)

Visualizing Landscape Impacts (Water retention cut) (Berry) Virtual Forest (Innovative GIS Solutions, 1998)

Forest inventory data establishes tree types, stocking density and maturity— …replaces “old pastel colors and abstract symbols” Summer (diseased) Winter After Snowfall (ski run) Visualizing Landscape Conditions Before Fire (Berry) …changing the landscape’s carpet and objects to simulate different conditions— After Fire Virtual Forest (Innovative GIS Solutions, 1998) …modern Rendered Scenes approach photographic realism World Construction Set (3D Nature, 2007) TODAY there is a big difference… 3D Objects

Future Directions (2010 and beyond) Multimedia Mapping (2000s) Revisit Analytics (2020s) Revisit Geo-reference (2010s) GIS Modeling (1990s) Computer Mapping (1970s) Spatial dB Mgt (1980s) The Early Years Contemporary GIS Future Directions Mapping focus Data/Structure focus Analysis focus (Berry) (See Beyond Mapping III, “Topic 27”, GIS Evolution and Future Trends, (See Beyond Mapping III, “Topic 27”, GIS Evolution and Future Trends, Part 3

Dominant Driving Forces (three game changers) Changes in Our Map Paradigm (“-ists” and “-ologists”) — differences between the spatial Data/Information describing geographic phenomena and the Knowledge/Wisdom needed for prescribing management action that solve complex spatial problems Changes in Our Map Paradigm (“-ists” and “-ologists”) — differences between the spatial Data/Information describing geographic phenomena and the Knowledge/Wisdom needed for prescribing management action that solve complex spatial problems Cloud Computing (rise of the Netbook) — a “hosted elsewhere” environment that moves applications, services, and data from local storage to a dispersed set of servers and datacenters Cloud Computing (rise of the Netbook) — a “hosted elsewhere” environment that moves applications, services, and data from local storage to a dispersed set of servers and datacenters — Alternative Geographic Referencing (3D GIS) — a 3-dimensional coordinate system of columns (X), rows (Y), and verticals (Z) defining an imaginary matrix of grid elements, or “voxels,” that are a direct volumetric extension of the “pixels” in a 2D raster image 1) it involves Virtualized Resources …meaning that workloads are allocated among a multitude of interconnected computers acting as a single device 2) it is Dynamically Scalable …meaning that the system can be readily enlarged 3) it acts as a Service …meaning that the software and data components are shared over the Internet. (Berry) (See Beyond Mapping III, “Topic 27”, GIS Evolution and Future Trends, (See Beyond Mapping III, “Topic 27”, GIS Evolution and Future Trends,

Changes in Our Map Paradigm (“-ists” and “-ologists”) Current geotechnology innovation is being driven more and more by users. Innovation — “a creation, a new device or process resulting from study and experimentation” —is usually thought of as canonic advancements leading technology and not market-driven solutions following demand  “user-driven GIS innovation” … viable solutions require a melding of the minds of— Technology Experts (“-ists”) and Domain Experts (“-ologists”) (Berry) (See Beyond Mapping III, “Epilog”,, ) (See Beyond Mapping III, “Epilog”, Technical and Cultural Shifts in the GIS Paradigm, ) GeoScienceGeoExploration …so what is the source of the differences that are taking us beyond mapping? Second Game Changer

Spatial Reasoning & Dialog (Understanding) Philosopher’s Progression of Understanding— Data (all facts) Information (facts within a context) Knowledge (interrelationships among relevant facts) Wisdom (actionable knowledge) … GeoExploration emphasizes tools for data access and visualization (Data Centric) … GeoScience emphasizes tools for analysis of spatial patterns/relationships (Application Centric) Mapping focus Analysis focus Many GIS technologists perceive maps and mapping as precise placement of physical features (Description of facts — Mapping) …but many applications …but many applications deal with “opposing truths” in judgment and view maps as fluid, cognitive drawings (Prescription of relationships — Analysis) (Berry)

Spatial Reasoning & Dialog (Judgment) Perception involves beliefs and preferences based on experience, socialization and culture—development of perspective Opinion/Values implies actionable beliefs that reflect preferences, not universal truths Mapping focus Analysis focus Cognitive Levels of Judgment— …accounts for individual and collective values in the interpretation of mapped data Many GIS technologists perceive maps and mapping as precise placement of physical features (Description of facts — Mapping) But many applications But many applications deal with opposing “truths” in judgment and sees maps as fluid, cognitive drawings (Prescription of relationships — Analysis) (Berry)

Spatial Reasoning & Dialog (Map Types and Processing) Mapping focus Analysis focus Many GIS technologists perceive maps and mapping as precise placement of physical features (Description of facts — Mapping) But many applications But many applications deal with opposing “truths” in judgment and sees maps as fluid, cognitive drawings (Prescription of relationships — Analysis) ProducersProducers ConsumersConsumers (Berry) (See Beyond Mapping III, “Epilog”,, ) (See Beyond Mapping III, “Epilog”, Technical and Cultural Shifts in the GIS Paradigm, )

Geographic Referencing (Traditional 2D GIS) (Berry) Cartesian Coordinate System (X, Y, and Z) — both the traditional 2-D map and virtual reality’s 3-D visualization view the earth as a surface— …flattened to a pancake or curved and wrinkled a bit to reflect the surficial topography of an area Vector Discrete Spatial Objects (vector) — Discrete Spatial Objects (vector) — Point (X,Y) as fundamental unit Points, Lines, Areas Raster Continuous Surfaces (grid) — Continuous Surfaces (grid) — Cell (Col,Row) as fundamental unit Points, Lines, Areas Surfaces Third Game Changer

Alternative Geographic Referencing (3D GIS) (Berry) Database Referencing System (Col, Row, and Vertical) — Database Referencing System (Col, Row, and Vertical) — a Geodetic Referencing system (geographic position) used in identifying an “areal extent” in two-dimensions on the earth’s surface can be extended to a Database Referencing system (matrix location) — Col,Row,Vertical (Where) plus Attribute (What) effectively defining a 3-dimensional “project block” — Col,Row,Vertical (Where) plus Attribute (What) Vector Discrete Spatial Objects (vector) — Discrete Spatial Objects (vector) — Point (X,Y,Z) as fundamental unit …extremely difficult to extend to 3-dimensional geography as complex equations or facet sets must be used Raster Continuous Surfaces (grid) — Continuous Surfaces (grid) — Cell (Col,Row,Vertical) as fundamental unit Points, Lines, Areas, Surfaces and Volumes (See Beyond Mapping III, “Topic 27”, GIS Evolution and Future Trends, (See Beyond Mapping III, “Topic 27”, GIS Evolution and Future Trends,

Alternative Grid Elements (Hexagon and Dodecahedral) 2D Grid Element (Planimetric) Square 3D Grid Element (Volumetric) Cube Consistent distances and adjacency to surrounding grid elements Consistent distances and adjacency to surrounding grid elements Inconsistent distances and adjacency to surrounding grid elements (Orthogonal and Diagonal) Inconsistent distances and adjacency to surrounding grid elements (Orthogonal and Diagonal) Tightly Clustered Groupings Continuous Nested Grid Elements Cubic Grid (26 facets) Square Grid (8 facets) (Berry) Hexagonal Grid (6 facets) Hexagon Dodecahedral Grid (12 facets) Dodecahedral

Where Have We Been? (and opportunities to go further) Computer Mapping (70s)  Spatial Db Management (80s)  Map Analysis/Modeling (90s)  Multimedia Mapping (00s)  Future Directions (10s) online papers, materials, books and software online papers, materials, books and software Online book posted at PowerPoint posted at …