LIVING IN THE ENVIRONMENT 17 TH MILLER/SPOOLMAN Chapter 11 Sustaining Aquatic Biodiversity

Case Study: Protecting Whales: A Success Story… So Far (1) Cetaceans: Toothed whales and baleen whales 8 of 11 major species hunted to commercial extinction by : International Whaling Commission (IWC) Quotas based on insufficient data Quotas often ignored

Case Study: Protecting Whales: A Success Story… So Far (2) 1970: U.S. Stopped all commercial whaling Banned all imports of whale products 1986: IWC moratorium on commercial whaling Norway, Japan, and Iceland ignore moratorium

11-1 What Are the Major Threats to Aquatic Biodiversity? Concept 11-1 Aquatic species are threatened by habitat loss, invasive species, pollution, climate change, and overexploitation, all made worse by the growth of the human population. HIPPCO again

We Have Much to Learn about Aquatic Biodiversity Greatest marine biodiversity Coral reefs Estuaries Deep-ocean floor Biodiversity is higher Near the coast than in the open sea In the bottom region of the ocean than the surface region

Natural Capital: Marine Ecosystems Fig. 8-5, p. 172

Natural Capital: Freshwater Systems Fig. 8-15, p. 181

Human Activities Are Destroying and Degrading Aquatic Habitats Marine Coral reefs Mangrove forests Seagrass beds Sea-level rise from global warming will harm coral reefs and low-lying islands with mangrove forests Ocean floor: effect of trawlers Freshwater Dams Excessive water withdrawal

Natural Capital Degradation: Area of Ocean Bottom Before and After a Trawler Fig. 11-2, p. 252

Invasive Species Are Degrading Aquatic Biodiversity Invasive species Threaten native species Disrupt and degrade whole ecosystems Two examples Asian swamp eel: waterways of south Florida Lionfish in the Atlantic

Invasive Lionfish Fig. 11-3, p. 254

Science Focus: How Carp Have Muddied Some Waters Lake Wingra, Wisconsin (U.S.): eutrophic Contains invasive species Purple loosestrife and the common carp Dr. Richard Lathrop Removed carp from an area of the lake This area appeared to recover

Lake Wingra in Madison, Wisconsin Fig. 11-A, p. 255

Case Study: Invaders Have Ravaged Lake Victoria Loss of biodiversity and cichlids Nile perch: deliberately introduced Frequent algal blooms Nutrient runoff Spills of untreated sewage Less algae-eating cichlids Water hyacinths

Natural Capital Degradation: The Nile Perch In Lake Victoria Fig. 11-4a, p. 254

Water Hyacinths in Lake Victoria Fig. 11-5, p. 255

Case Study: Can the Great Lakes Survive Repeated Invasions by Alien Species? Collectively, world’s largest body of freshwater Invaded by at least 162 nonnative species Sea lamprey Zebra mussel Quagga mussel Asian carp In Great Lakes?

Zebra Mussels in Lake Michigan Fig , p. 271 These zebra mussels are attached to a water current meter in Lake Michigan. This invader entered the Great Lakes through ballast water dumped from a European ship. It has become a major nuisance and a threat to commerce as well as to biodiversity in the Great Lakes.

Zebra Mussels, cont. Zebra mussels are efficient at filtering large volumes of water and as an adult may filter more than four quarts a day. This filtration process, although greatly improving water clarity, contributes to the explosive growth of harmful algal blooms in Saginaw Bay and other fresh bodies of water during the summer months. The mussel is low in fat and its shell has no nutritional value causing fish to expend lots of energy crushing and digesting the mussel. The zebra and quagga mussels displace other more energy-rich food sources and leave fish and other aquatic species with fewer food options. As a result, fish stocks and conditions have declined in many of the Great Lakes. Of particular concern is a decline in lake whitefish, an important commercially-fished species.

Asian Carp from Lake Michigan Fig , p. 271

Population Growth and Pollution Can Reduce Aquatic Biodiversity More noise and crowding from humans Nitrates and phosphates, mainly from fertilizers, enter water Leads to eutrophication Toxic pollutants from industrial and urban areas Plastics

Hawaiian Monk Seal Fig. 11-6, p. 256

Climate Change Is a Growing Threat Global warming: sea levels will rise and aquatic biodiversity is threatened Coral reefs Swamp some low-lying islands Drown many highly productive coastal wetlands New Orleans, Louisiana, and New York City

Overfishing and Extinction: Gone Fishing, Fish Gone (1) Fishery: concentration of a particular wild aquatic species suitable for commercial harvesting in a specific area Fishprint: area of ocean needed to sustain the fish consumption of a person, country, or the world Marine and freshwater fish Threatened with extinction by human activities more than any other group of species

Overfishing and Extinction: Gone Fishing, Fish Gone (2) Commercial extinction: no longer economically feasible to harvest a species Collapse of the Atlantic cod fishery and its domino effect Fewer larger fish More problems with invasive species

Natural Capital Degradation: Collapse of the Cod Fishery Off the Canadian Coast Fig. 11-7, p. 257

Science Focus: Clashing Scientific Views Can Lead to Cooperation and Progress Ray Hilborn disagreed with Boris Worm about the long-term prognosis for the world’s fisheries The two agreed to work together Developed new research methods and standards Examined maximum sustained yield Reported findings and prognosis in 2009

Case Study: Industrial Fish Harvesting Methods Trawler fishing Purse-seine fishing Longlining Drift-net fishing Bycatch problem

Major Commercial Fishing Methods Used to Harvest Various Marine Species Fig. 11-8, p. 259

From the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) of the United Nations The authors estimate that between 17.9 and 39.5 million tons (average 27.0 million) of fish are discarded each year in commercial fisheries. These estimates are based on a review of over 800 papers. The highest quantities of discards are from the Northwest Pacific while tropical shrimp trawl fisheries generate a higher proportion of discards than any other fishery type, accounting for one third of the global total. Of four major gear groups, shrimp trawls stand alone at the top of the list; bottom trawls, long-lines and pot fisheries come next. The third group consists of Japanese high-seas drift net fisheries, Danish seines and purse seines for capelin. Relatively low levels result from pelagic trawls, small pelagic purse seines and some of high seas drift nets. The authors point to inadequate data to determine the biological, ecological, economic and cultural impacts of discards although economic losses run to billions of dollars. However, it appears most likely that socio-cultural attitudes towards marine resources will guide international discard policies. Techniques to reduce bycatch levels including traditional net selectivity, fishing gear development and time/area restrictions, are discussed. Effort reduction, incentive programmes and individual transferable quotas (that make the vessel responsible for bycatch reduction) are seen as promising avenues for the future. However, quick solutions to the problem are unlikely and much more information is required.

11-2 How Can We Protect and Sustain Marine Biodiversity? Concept 11-2 We can help to sustain marine biodiversity by using laws and economic incentives to protect species, setting aside marine reserves to protect ecosystems, and using community-based integrated coastal management.

Legal Protection of Some Endangered and Threatened Marine Species (1) Why is it hard to protect marine biodiversity? 1.Human ecological footprint and fishprint are expanding 2.Much of the damage in the ocean is not visible 3.The oceans are incorrectly viewed as an inexhaustible resource 4.Most of the ocean lies outside the legal jurisdiction of any country

Legal Protection of Some Endangered and Threatened Marine Species (2) 1975 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species 1979 Global Treaty on Migratory Species U.S. Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 U.S. Endangered Species Act of 1973 U.S. Whale Conservation and Protection Act of International Convention on Biological Diversity

Economic Incentives Can Be Used to Sustain Aquatic Biodiversity Tourism Sea turtles Whales Economic rewards

Case Study: Holding Out Hope for Marine Turtles Threats to the leatherback turtle Trawlers and drowning in fishing nets Hunting Eggs used as food Pollution Climate change Fishing boats using turtle excluder devices Communities protecting the turtles

Sea Turtle Species Fig. 11-9, p. 262

An Endangered Leatherback Turtle is Entangled in a Fishing Net Fig , p. 262

Marine Sanctuaries Protect Ecosystems and Species Offshore fishing Exclusive economic zones for countries 200 nautical miles High seas governed by treaties that are hard to enforce Law of the Sea Treaty Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)

Establishing a Global Network of Marine Reserves: An Ecosystem Approach (1) Marine reserves Closed to Commercial fishing Dredging Mining and waste disposal Core zone No human activity allowed Less harmful activities allowed E.g., recreational boating and shipping

Establishing a Global Network of Marine Reserves: An Ecosystem Approach (2) Fully protected marine reserves work fast Fish populations double Fish size grows Reproduction triples Species diversity increase by almost one-fourth Cover less than 1% of world’s oceans Marine scientists want 30-50%

Individuals Matter: Creating an Artificial Coral Reef in Israel Reuven Yosef, Red Sea Star Restaurant Coral reef restoration Reconciliation ecology Treatment of broken coral with antibiotics

Protecting Marine Biodiversity: Individuals and Communities Together Oceans 30% more acidic from increased carbon dioxide in atmosphere and increased temperature Integrated Coastal Management Community-based group to prevent further degradation of the ocean

11-3 How Should We Manage and Sustain Marine Fisheries? Concept 11-3 Sustaining marine fisheries will require improved monitoring of fish and shellfish populations, cooperative fisheries management among communities and nations, reduction of fishing subsidies, and careful consumer choices in seafood markets.

Estimating and Monitoring Fishery Populations Is the First Step Maximum sustained yield (MSY): traditional approach Optimum sustained yield (OSY) Multispecies management Large marine systems: using large complex computer models Precautionary principle

Some Communities Cooperate to Regulate Fish Harvests Community management of the fisheries Co-management of the fisheries with the government Government sets quotas for species and divides the quotas among communities Limits fishing seasons Regulates fishing gear

Government Subsidies Can Encourage Overfishing Governments spend billion dollars per hear subsidizing fishing Often leads to overfishing Discourages long-term sustainability of fish populations

Aquaculture Blitz—Teams of 3 Argue that aquaculture is the “wave” of the future, that it must be done (and why), and how it must be done to be sustainable. Argue that aquaculture is overrated, that is will never help feed our growing population, and provide the reasons why it is not sustainable. Graded thesis statement, plus supporting arguments. 15 minutes to prepare. < 90 seconds to present.

Consumer Choices Can Help to Sustain Fisheries and Aquatic Biodiversity Need labels to inform consumers how and where fish was caught 1999: Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) Certifies sustainably produced seafood Proper use of sustainable aquaculture Plant eating fish best -- Tilapia

Panama Aquaculture Open Blue Sea Farms

Aquaculture, or farming of fish and other seafood, holds great promise as a solution to the ever-increasing pressures on our ocean resources.

Solutions: Managing Fisheries Fig , p. 267

Environmental Defense Fund Seafood Selector

Monterey Bay Aquarium Seafood Watch

11-4 How Should We Protect and Sustain Wetlands? Concept 11-4 To maintain the ecological and economic services of wetlands, we must maximize preservation of remaining wetlands and restoration of degraded and destroyed wetlands.

Coastal and Inland Wetlands Are Disappearing around the World Highly productive wetlands Provide natural flood and erosion control Maintain high water quality; natural filters Effect of rising sea levels

We Can Preserve and Restore Wetlands Laws for protection Zoning laws steer development away from wetlands In U.S., need federal permit to fill wetlands greater than 3 acres Mitigation banking Can destroy wetland if create one of equal area Ecologists argue this as a last resort

Human-Created Wetland in Florida Fig , p. 268

Case Study: Can We Restore the Florida Everglades? (1) “River of Grass”: south Florida, U.S. Damage in the 20 th century Drained Diverted Paved over Nutrient pollution from agriculture Invasive plant species 1947: Everglades National Park unsuccessful protection project

Case Study: Can We Restore the Florida Everglades? (2) 1990: Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP) 1.Restore curving flow of ½ of Kissimmee River 2.Remove canals and levees in strategic locations 3.Flood farmland to create artificial marshes 4.Create 18 reservoirs to create water supply for lower Everglades and humans 5.Recapture Everglades water flowing to sea and return it to Everglades Already weakened by Florida legislature

The World’s Largest Restoration Project Fig , p. 269

11-5 How Should We Protect and Sustain Freshwater Lakes, Rivers, and Fisheries? Concept 11-5 Freshwater ecosystems are strongly affected by human activities on adjacent lands, and protecting these ecosystems must include protection of their watersheds.

Freshwater Ecosystems Are under Major Threats Think: HIPPCO 40% of world’s rivers are dammed Many freshwater wetlands destroyed Invasive species Threatened species Overfishing Human population pressures

Managing River Basins Is Complex and Controversial Columbia River: U.S. and Canada Snake River: Washington state, U.S. Dams Provide hydroelectric power Provide irrigation water Hurt salmon

Natural Capital: Ecological Services of Rivers Fig , p. 272

We Can Protect Freshwater Ecosystems by Protecting Watersheds Freshwater ecosystems protected through Laws Economic incentives Restoration efforts Wild rivers and scenic rivers 1968 National Wild and Scenic Rivers Act

11-6 What Are the Priorities for Sustained Biodiversity, Ecosystem Services? Concept 11-6 Sustaining the world’s aquatic biodiversity requires mapping it, protecting aquatic hotspots, creating large, fully protected marine reserves, protecting freshwater ecosystems, and carrying out ecological restoration of degraded coastal and inland wetlands.

Using an Ecosystem Approach to Sustaining Aquatic Biodiversity Edward O. Wilson Complete the mapping of the world’s aquatic biodiversity Identify and preserve aquatic diversity hotspots Create large and fully protected marine reserves Protect and restore the world’s lakes and rivers Ecological restoration projects worldwide Make conservation financially rewarding

Three Big Ideas 1.The world’s aquatic systems provide important ecological and economic services, and scientific investigation of these poorly understood ecosystems could lead to immense ecological and economic benefits. 2.Aquatic ecosystems and fisheries are being severely degraded by human activities that lead to aquatic habitat disruption and loss of biodiversity.

Three Big Ideas 3.We can sustain aquatic biodiversity by establishing protected sanctuaries, managing coastal development, reducing water pollution, and preventing overfishing.