School and Achievement  Schools  Achievement  Careers, Work, and Retirement

Contemporary Approaches to Student Learning and Assessment Constructivist Approach: ◦ Emphasizes child’s active construction of knowledge and understanding ◦ Teacher provides support for students exploring their world and developing knowledge. ◦ Main theory: Piaget’s theory. Schools

Contemporary Approaches to Student Learning and Assessment Social constructivist approaches: ◦ Focuses on collaboration with others to produce knowledge and understanding. ◦ Main theory: Vygotsky’s theory Constructivist approaches: ◦ Learner is center of educational process; learner-center principles Schools

Contemporary Approaches to Student Learning and Assessment Direct Instruction Approach: ◦ Teacher-centered approach characterized by  Teacher direction and control  Mastery of academic material  High expectations for students’ progress  Maximum time spent on learning tasks Schools

Accountability in Schools State-mandated tests have taken on a more powerful role — No Child Left Behind Critics argue that they lead to ◦ Single score being used as sole predictor ◦ Teaching to test; use of memorization ◦ Tests don’t measure important skills like creativity and social skills Schools

Schools and Developmental Status Early childhood education ◦ Many ways young children are educated The child-centered kindergarten ◦ Emphasizes the whole child  Physical, cognitive, socioemotional development  Needs, interests, and learning style  Emphasizes learning process Schools

Schools and Developmental Status Montessori approach: ◦ Teacher is facilitator ◦ Children encouraged to be early decision makers ◦ Fosters independence and cognitive development skills ◦ De-emphasizes verbal interactions ◦ Criticisms vary Schools

Developmentally Appropriate and Inappropriate Education Developmentally appropriate practice: ◦ Focuses on typical development of children within age span (age appropriateness) and uniqueness of each child (individual appropriateness) Developmentally inappropriate practice: ◦ Relies on abstract paper-and-pencil activities given to large groups Schools

Education for Disadvantaged Children 1965 – Project Head Start ◦ U.S. programs vary for low-income children ◦ Proven positive and quality experiences Controversies in early childhood education ◦ Include both academic and constructivist approaches Schools

Elementary School Change from “home-child’’ to “school-child” New roles and obligations Too often, early schooling has more negative feedback; lowers child’s self-esteem Teachers often pressured to cover curriculum; ◦ Tight scheduling; may harm children Schools

Educating Adolescents Benefits Independent from parents’ monitoring More opportunities for friends More subjects to select from Challenging work Feel more grown up Schools Drawbacks Stressful — many changes at once Top-dog phenomenon Transition to Middle or Junior High School

Effective Schools for Young Adolescents Criticisms: ◦ Watered-down versions of high schools ◦ Lack age-appropriate curricular and extracurricular schedules ◦ Massive, impersonal, and lacking Schools

High School Concerns about education and students: ◦ Graduate with inadequate skills ◦ Enter college needing remediation classes ◦ Student drop out rates  Ethnic and racial differences  Gender differences Schools

Effective Schools for Young Adolescents Effective programs that discourage high school dropping out include ◦ Reading programs ◦ Tutoring ◦ Counseling ◦ Mentoring Schools ‘I Have A Dream’ program –Projects adopt entire public grade level or cohorts in housing projects –Gives college tuition to high school grads

High School Need for more effective programs More support needed to enable students to graduate with knowledge and skills needed to succeed Need higher expectations for student achievement Schools

Trends in High School Dropout Rates Schools Year Percent of 16- to 24-year-olds who have dropped out of school

College and Adult Education Transition to College: ◦ Replays the top-dog phenomenon ◦ Many of same benefits found in high school ◦ Movement to a larger, more impersonal school ◦ Interact with peers of more diverse backgrounds ◦ Increased focus on achievement and assessment Schools

College and Adult Education Adult education includes ◦ Literacy training ◦ Community development ◦ University credit programs ◦ On-the-job training ◦ Continuing professional education Women — the majority of adult learners Reasons for attending adult education and college vary among individuals Schools

Educating Children with Disabilities Approximately 10 percent of children in the U.S. receive special education or related services More than 40% have a learning disability Schools

Diversity of Children Who Have A Disability

Learning Disabilities Learning disability characteristics: ◦ A minimum IQ level ◦ A significant difficulty in a school-related area ◦ No other conditions, such as  severe emotional disorders  second-language background  sensory disabilities  specific neurological deficits Schools

Learning Disabilities Dyslexia — severe impairment in ability to read and spell Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder ◦ Inattention, hyperactivity, impulsivity ◦ Definitive causes unknown ◦ Higher risk if a sibling already diagnosed ◦ Medications are most common treatment ◦ Other treatment recommendations vary Schools

Special Educational Law Public Law , the Education for All Handicapped Children Act ◦ Individualized education plan (IEP) — written program tailored to child with disability ◦ Least restrictive environment (LRE) — child with disability educated in setting similar to where other children educated ◦ Inclusion — educating child with special education needs in regular classroom Schools

SES and Ethnicity in Schools Low-income, ethnic minority children face more difficulties in school School inequalities ◦ Schools in poor areas  underfunded  young inexperienced teachers  largely segregated ◦ Inadequate opportunities for effective learning ◦ ‘The Shame of a Nation’ ◦ Ethnic school experiences vary across groups Schools

Improving relationships among ethnically diverse students Turn class into jigsaw classroom Use technology to foster cooperation Positive personal contact with diverse other students Engage in perspective taking Help students think critically and be emotionally intelligent Reduce bias View school and community as team Be competent cultural mediator Schools

Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation Extrinsic Incentives such as rewards and punishments Rewards can undermine motivation Achievement Intrinsic Factors such as self- determination, curiosity, challenge, and effort Increased by opportunity for choices

Self-Determination and Choice Achievement Student internal motivation and intrinsic interest in school tasks increase when more opportunities for choice available Some rewards can undermine learning; rewards most effective with high interest Rewards convey mastery information Developmental shifts

Mastery Motivation Mastery orientation — task-oriented; concerned with learning strategies Helpless orientation — one seems trapped by difficulty and attributes one’s difficulty to a lack of ability Performance orientation — achievement outcomes; winning matters Achievement

Self-Efficacy Mindset; cognitive view of oneself ◦ Fixed mindset: ‘carved in stone’ ◦ Growth mindset: belief in change ◦ promotes optimistic or pessimistic outlook Self-Efficacy ◦ Belief that one can master a situation and produce favorable outcomes Achievement

Goal-Setting, Planning, and Self-Monitoring Self-efficacy and achievement improve when individuals set goals that are ◦ Specific ◦ Proximal (short-term) ◦ Challenging Can set both long and short-term goals Expectations linked to outcomes/efforts Achievement

Ethnicity and Culture Ethnicity and Achievement ◦ Often tangled with Socioeconomic Status  SES better predictor of achievements Many minorities challenged by ◦ Negative stereotypes and discrimination ◦ Poverty ◦ Culture and conflicting neighborhood values Achievement

Cross-Cultural Comparisons of Educational Achievement American children perform poorly on international math and science tests ◦ Korean, Taiwanese score highest ◦ Different attitudes about achievement ◦ Different teaching styles ◦ Differing parental expectations Achievement

Cross- Cultural Comparisons of Educational Achievement Achievement

Career Developmental Changes Young children High school College Idealistic fantasies about what they want to be when they grow up Career decision-making more serious as they explore different career possibilities Choosing major or specialization designed to lead to work in a field Early adulthood Start full-time occupation Careers, Work, and Retirement

Personality Type Theory John Holland: match personality to career ◦ Realistic: prefer solitude, being outdoors ◦ Investigative: interested in ideas, intellectualist ◦ Artistic: creative, innovative ways for self- expression ◦ Social: helping orientation, desire to be with people ◦ Enterprising: dominating, good at persuasion ◦ Conventional: detail-oriented, prefer highly structured situations Careers, Work, and Retirement

Values and Careers Important aspect of choosing a career — match career to one’s values Monitoring the Occupational Outlook ◦ Service-producing industries will account for most new jobs ◦ Jobs requiring college degrees will be fastest- growing and highest-paying ◦ Labor force participation rates of women projected to increase Careers, Work, and Retirement

Work in Adolescence U.S. high school students ◦ 90% receive high school diplomas ◦ 75% work part-time and attend school ◦ Most work hours per week ◦ Most work in service jobs Work more than in other developed countries; less than developing countries Careers, Work, and Retirement

Advantages and Disadvantages of Part-Time Work for Adolescents Cons Give up sports Forego social affairs with peers Less sleep Balance demands of work, school, family, and peers Lower grades Careers, Work, and Retirement Pros Understand how business world works Learn how to get and keep a job Manage money Budget time Pride in accomplishments Evaluate goals

Work Emerging adulthood ◦ Many variations of work patterns exist in merging roles of student and worker ◦ Co-op programs, some dropouts, most graduate Adulthood ◦ The work landscape ◦ Unemployment ◦ Dual-career couples  Males assuming more home responsibilities  Women assuming more ‘breadwinner’ roles Careers, Work, and Retirement

Changing Percentages of Traditional & Dual-Career Couples Careers, Work, and Retirement

Age and Job Satisfaction Careers, Work, and Retirement

Careers and Work in Middle Adulthood Midlife time of evaluation, assessment, and reflection Recognizing limitations in career progress Deciding whether to change jobs or careers Rebalance family and work Planning for retirement Careers, Work, and Retirement

Work in Late Adulthood Percentage of older adults who work part-time steadily increased since 1960s ◦ Good health ◦ Strong psychological commitment to work ◦ Distaste for retirement ◦ Cognitive ability is best predictor Many participate in unpaid work Age affects many aspects of work Careers, Work, and Retirement

Retirement Option to retire late twentieth- century phenomenon in U.S. Today’s workers will spend 10 to 15 percent of their lives in retirement Flexibility is key factor in adjustment Retirement planning includes more than successful financial planning Careers, Work, and Retirement