Photo: The Daily Galaxy

 CPBM Objectives (chapter 8) 1) Identify fire behavior terms 2) Explain the fire triangle 3) Discuss the major elements of the fire environment 4) List and explain the three methods of heat transfer 5) List fuel characteristics which govern combustion

 CPBM Objectives (chapter 8) 6) Identify Fuel Models and examples in Florida 7) Explain the difference between fire intensity and severity and how both can be regulated and measured 8) Define residence time and why it is significant in Rx fire 9) Discuss indicators of erratic or potentially erratic fire behavior

Wind REAR LEFT FLANK RIGHT FLANK FINGER HEAD SPOT FIRE POCKET UNBURNED ISLAND

 Surface Fire  Burning in surface fuels ▪ Grass, shrubs, litter  Ground Fire  Smoldering in ground fuels ▪ duff, peat, roots, stumps  Crown Fire  Burning in aerial fuels ▪ Crowns or canopy of the overstory ▪ May or may not be independent of surface fire Photo: Univ. of Toronto Fier Lab Photo: News Provider

 Spotting – burning or glowing embers being transported in the air.  Torching – Movement of fire from the surface to the crowns of individual trees.  Flare Up – A sudden increase in ROS and Intensity.

Fuel Oxygen Heat The Fire Triangle Energy release in the form of heat and light when oxygen combines with a combustible material (fuel) at a suitably high temperature

 Photosynthesis: converts radiant energy to stored chemical energy (CO 2 + H 2 O ---light-----> C 6 H 12 O 6 + O 2 ).  Combustion: reverses photosynthesis (C 6 H 12 O 6 + O 2 ---high temperature-----> H 2 O + CO 2 + heat and light) (fuel) (325 C for wood)  Same process as decay and decomposition  Begins with endothermic reaction, becomes exothermic  Produces thermal, radiant and kinetic energy  Extinction: insufficient heat to sustain combustion

Pre-Ignition Smoldering Glowing Flaming 4 Phases of Combustion

 Pre-ignition  Requires heat/energy input to increase surface temperature >200˚C  Dehydration  Volatilization of waxes, oils, other extractives  Pyrolysis (chemical decomposition of organic matter without Oxygen– inside fuels, emits volatiles)  Volatiles either condense into particles (smoke) or are consumed during flaming combustion Pre-Ignition

 Ignition  Transition to flaming combustion: gases released by pyrolysis ignite  Surface temperatures around 320 C (600F)  Heat released by combustion brings other fuels to ignition

 Flaming combustion  Surface temperatures ˚ C  Combustible volatiles ignite above surface, creating flame: the GASES are burning, not the fuel itself.  Combustion occurs in zone above fuel surface  Oxidation produces: heat, CO 2, H 2 O and incompletely degraded organic compounds  Smoke includes these + other gases which condense or reform above flame zone Flaming

 Smoldering  No visible flames  Surface temperatures < 500 C  Carbon buildup on surface reduces gas production that would maintain flame  Occurs when fuels tightly packed  Surface char oxidizes to CO 2, H 2 O, ash  Continued oxidation of other compounds  Smoldering duff and ground fires raise soil temperature and can kill roots  Large quantities of smoke Smoldering

 A result of incomplete combustion  Major constituents  Particulate matter ▪ Solid or liquid particle suspended in atmosphere ▪ Condensed hydrocarbons and tar materials ▪ Entrained fragments of vegetation and ash  CO 2 and CO  H 2 O  Gaseous hydrocarbons  Smoke/volume burned increases for:  Low intensity fires in moist or living fuels  High rates of spread (& less efficient combustion)

Glowing All volatiles have already been driven off, oxygen reaches the combustion surfaces, and there is no visible smoke (products are CO 2 and CO) Oxidation of solid fuel accompanied by incandescence This phase follows smoldering combustion, continues until temperature drops or only non-combustible ash remains

 Radiation  For example, the sun, and your hand…  Electromagnetic waves transfer heat to fuel surface only  Accounts for most drying and heating of fuel surfaces ahead of flame or on opposite steep slopes– radiates in all directions  Radiation  For example, the sun, and your hand…  Electromagnetic waves transfer heat to fuel surface only  Accounts for most drying and heating of fuel surfaces ahead of flame or on opposite steep slopes– radiates in all directions

 Convection  Vertical (or other direction) movement of gas or liquid, as heat rises  Heats plant foliage above surface fires and fuels ahead of the flame on steep slopes, or if wind driven  Carries firebrands away from fire; spotting potential  Can create enormous columns and drive fire behavior  Convection  Vertical (or other direction) movement of gas or liquid, as heat rises  Heats plant foliage above surface fires and fuels ahead of the flame on steep slopes, or if wind driven  Carries firebrands away from fire; spotting potential  Can create enormous columns and drive fire behavior

Heat Transfer Processes Conduction Conduction Transfer by molecular activity within a solid object Transfer by molecular activity within a solid object Primary method for raising temperatures within large fuels Primary method for raising temperatures within large fuels Occurs between objects/fuels that are in contact Occurs between objects/fuels that are in contact Transfers heat in dense fuels, requiring additional heat to reach ignition Transfers heat in dense fuels, requiring additional heat to reach ignition

 Rate of spread (ROS): rate at which fire front advances through forest fuel (ft/sec, chains/min)  Residency Time: Duration for flaming combustion to pass a specific location.  Flame Length & Depth Residency Time = Flame Depth/ROS

 Intensity – rate of heat energy during combustion  Reaction intensity: per unit area (BTU·ft -2 ·min -1 )  Fireline Intensity: per unit length of the fire front (BTU·ft -1 ·min -1 ) I = h·w·r I fireline intensity h fuel heat content w weight of fuel consumed per unit area r rate of spread *Flame Length is a good estimate of intensity

 Severity: Impact of fire on the environment  Plants, animals, soils, water SEVERITY INTENSITY LOW HIGH LOW Backing fire in long unburned longleaf pine Stand replacing fire in mixed conifer forests Head fire in frequently burned longleaf pine Chaparral Brush Fires

1. Weather 2. Fuels 3. Topography

 Surface Fuels  Grasses  Shrubs  Litter (leaves)  Woody debris

 Ground Fuels  Duff (partially decomposed)  Peat  Roots  Stumps mineral soil litter fermentation layer humus Duff

 Aerial Fuels  Crown or canopy of overstory  Ladder Fuels (located between crown and surface fuels)  Smaller trees  Vines

 Size and Shape  Surface area:volume ratio ▪ Grasses ▪ Palmetto ▪ Branches ▪ Logs 1000:1 40:1  Particle Density

 Fuel Chemistry  Volatile oils  Mineral Content  Dampening effect on combustion  Heat Content (stored energy)  6,000-12,000 BTU/lb

 Fuel Arrangement  Vertical ▪ Grasses & shrubs  Horizontal ▪ Litter ▪ Downed woody debris

 Fuel Loading  By size classes  Compactness  Bulk density (fuel load/fuelbed volume)  Packing ratio (fuelbed density/particle density)  Continuity  Vertical  Horizontal ALL FUELBED PROPERTIES

 Fuel Moisture Content (FMC)  Large dampening effect on combustion  Heat sink ▪ FMC changes hourly, daily, and seasonally! Fuel Moisture Content (%) = (Water Weight / Dry Fuel Weight) x 100

 What influences FMC  In Dead Fuels ▪ Precipitation (amount and duration) ▪ Temperature ▪ Relative humidity ▪ Wind

 Equilibrium Moisture Content  For a given temperature and RH dead fuel will reach a FMC at equilibrium.  Environmental conditions are not constant  Fuel is constantly changes FMC to reach EMC  The lag time to reach EMC depends on particle size

 Timelag categories for dead woody fuels Timelag ClassFuel DiameterTimelag Range (hr) 1 Hour0-1/4” Hour¼”-1” Hour1-3” Hour3-8” Timelag, or “response time”, is the time it takes for 63% of the change to occur between one EMC and a second EMC when a fuel in equilibrium with a stable environmental condition is suddenly exposed to a different stable environmental condition.

 Small diameter fuels react quickly to hourly and daily changes.  Important to monitor.  Large diameter fuels react more to seasonal changes  California versus Florida?  Fine fuels drive fire behavior

 Moisture of Extinction  Dead: 12-40%  Live: >120%  Available Fuel

 Florida Fine Fuel Moisture Calculation Chart  dof.com/wildfire/rx_training.html#cbc dof.com/wildfire/rx_training.html#cbc

 Live Fuels  FMC can be much higher than dead fuels ( %)  Influenced by: ▪ Drought (KBDI) ▪ RH ▪ Wind *Ignition of live fuels may largely depend the combustion characteristics of other fuels (e.g. dead surface fuels).

 Duff Moisture  Very dry to very moist  <30% FMC duff can burn on its own  Potential for tree mortality in burning long unburned forests  May smolder for long durations  May cause lots of smoke

 FMC  Wind  Increases O2  Bends flames  Increases ROS  Dries fuels convection wind radiation conduction

 Slopes  Similar effect as wind  Bends flames  ROS higher upslope Slope Position top, middle, bottom

Aspect

 Other topographic features  Valleys  Box Canyons  Steep draws  Elevation

ELEVATION

 Indicators (on a Rx burn)  KBDI>500  FMC (fine) <7%  RH<30%  Cold front approaching  Gusty winds  Dust devils/fire whirls  Just inland from seabreeze  Well-defined convection column  Thunderstorms  Spotting  DI approaching 70

 Fire Behavior Prediction Models (e.g. BehavePlus)  INPUTS OUTPUTS Fuel characteristics Rate of Spread FMC Fireline Intensity SlopeFlame Lengths Windand more…