Copyright © 2004 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 2-1 THE INTERNATIONAL MONETARY SYSTEM

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 2-2 The International Monetary System Foreign exchange dealers, like those in the photograph, trade one kind of currency for another. A better way to say it, is that these dealers use one country's currency to buy the currency of another country. The red digital numbers show the price, on June 18, 1998, of a dollar, reckoned in Japanese yen. If you wanted to buy yen with your dollars, you could have gotten about 140 yen for your dollar. A Japanese businessman would have had to pay 140 yen to buy your dollar. What determines how much a dollar (or the yen) is worth? That depends on how many people, actually having yen, would rather have dollars, and on how many people, actually having dollars, wish they had yen. This is an example of the basic economic concepts of SUPPLY and DEMAND.

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 2-3 The increased volatility of exchange rates is one of the main economic developments of the past 40 years. Policies for forecasting and reacting to exchange rate fluctuations are still evolving. Although volatile exchange rates increase risk, they also create profit opportunities for firms and investors.

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 2-4 The International Monetary System The international monetary system is the structure within which foreign exchange rates are determined, international trade and capital flows are accommodated, and the balance-of- payments adjustments made. All of the instruments, institutions, and agreements that link together the world’s currency, money markets, securities, real estate, and commodity markets are also encompassed within that term.

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 2-5 Currency Terminology Foreign Currency Exchange Rate – the price of one country’s currency in units of another currency of commodity. –Can be fixed or floating Spot Exchange Rate – the quoted price for foreign exchange to be delivered at once, or in two days for interbank transactions.

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 2-6 Currency Terminology Forward Rate – the quoted price for foreign exchange to be delivered at a specified date in the future. –Can be guaranteed with a forward exchange contract Forward Premium or Discount – the percentage difference between the spot and forward exchange rate. –Calculated as Spot – Forward nForward xx

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 2-7 Currency Terminology Devaluation of a Currency – refers to a drop in foreign exchange value of a currency that is pegged to gold or another currency. –The opposite is revaluation Weakening, deterioration, or depreciation of a Currency – refers to a drop in the foreign exchange value of a floating currency. –The opposite is strengthening or appreciation

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 2-8 Currency Terminology Soft or Weak – describes a currency that is expected to devalue or depreciate relative to major currencies. –Also refers to currencies being artificially sustained by their governments Hard or Strong – describes a currency that is expected to revalue or appreciate relative to major trading currencies. Eurocurrencies – are domestic currencies of one country on deposit in a bank in a second country.

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 2-9 History of the International Monetary System The Gold Standard (1876 – 1913) –Gold has been a medium of exchange since 3000 BC –“Rules of the game” were simple, each country set the rate at which its currency unit could be converted to a weight of gold –Currency exchange rates were in effect “fixed” –Expansionary monetary policy was limited to a government’s supply of gold –Was in effect until the outbreak of WWI as the free movement of gold was interrupted

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved History of the International Monetary System The Inter-War Years & WWII ( ) –During this period, currencies were allowed to fluctuate over a fairly wide range in terms of gold and each other –Increasing fluctuations in currency values became realized as speculators sold short weak currencies –The US adopted a modified gold standard in 1934 –During WWII and its chaotic aftermath the US dollar was the only major trading currency that continued to be convertible

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved History of the International Monetary System Bretton Woods and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) (1944) –As WWII drew to a close, the Allied Powers met at Bretton Woods, New Hampshire to create a post- war international monetary system –The Bretton Woods Agreement established a US dollar based international monetary system and created two new institutions the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved History of the International Monetary System –The International Monetary Fund is a key institution in the new international monetary system and was created to: Help countries defend their currencies against cyclical, seasonal, or random occurrences Assist countries having structural trade problems if they promise to take adequate steps to correct these problems –The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank) helped fund post-war reconstruction and has since then supported general economic development

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved History of the International Monetary System Fixed Exchange Rates ( ) –The currency arrangement negotiated at Bretton Woods and monitored by the IMF worked fairly well during the post- WWII era of reconstruction and growth in world trade –However, widely diverging monetary and fiscal policies, differential rates of inflation and various currency shocks resulted in the system’s demise –The US dollar became the main reserve currency held by central banks, resulting in a consistent and growing balance of payments deficit which required a heavy capital outflow of dollars to finance these deficits and meet the growing demand for dollars from investors and businesses

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved History of the International Monetary System –Eventually, the heavy overhang of dollars held by foreigners resulted in a lack of confidence in the ability of the US to met its commitment to convert dollars to gold –The lack of confidence forced President Richard Nixon to suspend official purchases or sales of gold by the US Treasury on August 15, 1971 –This resulted in subsequent devaluations of the dollar –Most currencies were allowed to float to levels determined by market forces as of March, 1973

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved History of the International Monetary System An Eclectic Currency Arrangement (1973 – Present) –Since March 1973, exchange rates have become much more volatile and less predictable than they were during the “fixed” period –There have been numerous, significant world currency events over the past 30 years

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved The IMF’s Exchange Rate Regime Classifications The International Monetary Fund classifies all exchange rate regimes into eight specific categories. There are eight categories that span the spectrum of exchange rate regimes from rigidly fixed to independently floating.

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved Fixed Versus Flexible Exchange Rates A nation’s choice as to which currency regime to follow reflects national priorities about all facets of the economy, including inflation, unemployment, interest rate levels, trade balances, and economic growth. The choice between fixed and flexible rates may change over time as priorities change.

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved Fixed Versus Flexible Exchange Rates Countries would prefer a fixed rate regime for the following reasons: –stability in international prices –inherent anti-inflationary nature of fixed prices However, a fixed rate regime has the following problems: –Need for central banks to maintain large quantities of hard currencies and gold to defend the fixed rate –Fixed rates can be maintained at rates that are inconsistent with economic fundamentals

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved Attributes of the “Ideal” Currency Possesses three attributes, often referred to as the Impossible Trinity: –Exchange rate stability –Full financial integration –Monetary independence The forces of economics to not allow the simultaneous achievement of all three

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved The period of floating exchange rates-is also referred to by Benjamin Cohen as the era of the “Unholy Trinity” Countries want… The ability to respond to domestic political forces- “monetary autonomy” International capital mobility (necessary for efficient international finance) Stable exchange rates

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved The problem is that these three goals are mutually inconsistent-you cannot have all three… For example…if a nation wishes to stimulate demand in its economy…it may decide to assist this by cutting interest rates.(monetary autonomy) BUT this will reduce the attractiveness of the currency on the FX markets  a fall in the value of the currency (reducing exchange rate stability)

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved In the Bretton Woods system…capital controls eliminated international capital mobility. This allowed states, for a time at least, to respond to domestic political forces without causing exchange rate instability. “Hot Money” could not rush in or out of the nation in response to domestic policies, so it could not disturb international exchange rate stability. In the floating exchange rate era, capital controls have proved impossible to enforce…

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved There are now too many ways to use technology and ingenuity to transfer funds from one country to another. This means that states MUST CHOOSE between stable exchange rates and the ability to set their own domestic economic agenda. For Ireland the Euro confers exchange rate stability, but we still trade heavily with Britain and the USA…(Britain although in the EU is not in the Euro). However the economic needs of France and Germany whose economies have been in the doldrums has resulted in the ECB reducing interest rates…Just at a time when the Irish economy was in danger of overheating ( ) a policy was implemented which added further demand to the Irish economy

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved The recent increase in the value of the Euro makes it more difficult for Irish exporters to penetrate non-euro zone markets..particularly the important British and US markets..since it makes Irish goods more expensive in terms of the pound sterling and the American $.

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved Emerging Markets and Regime Choices A currency board exists when a country’s central bank commits to back its monetary base – its money supply – entirely with foreign reserves at all times. This means that a unit of domestic currency cannot be introduced into the economy without an additional unit of foreign exchange reserves being obtained first. –Argentina moved from a managed exchange rate to a currency board in 1991 –In 2002, the country ended the currency board as a result of substantial economic and political turmoil

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved Emerging Markets and Regime Choices Dollarization is the use of the US dollar as the official currency of the country. One attraction of dollarization is that sound monetary and exchange-rate policies no longer depend on the intelligence and discipline of domestic policymakers. –Panama has used the dollar as its official currency since 1907 –Ecuador replaced its domestic currency with the US dollar in September, 2000

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved The Euro: Birth of a European Currency In December 1991, the members of the European Union met at Maastricht, the Netherlands to finalize a treaty that changed Europe’s currency future. This treaty set out a timetable and a plan to replace all individual ECU currencies with a single currency called the euro.

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved The Euro: Birth of a European Currency To prepare for the EMU, a convergence criteria was laid out whereby each member country was responsible for managing the following to a specific level: –Nominal inflation rates –Long-term interest rates –Fiscal deficits –Government debt In addition, a strong central bank, called the European Central Bank (ECB), was established in Frankfurt, Germany.

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved Effects of the Euro The euro affects markets in three ways: –Cheaper transactions costs in the Euro Zone –Currency risks and costs related to uncertainty are reduced –All consumers and businesses both inside and outside the Euro Zone enjoy price transparency and increased price-based competition

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved Achieving Monetary Unification If the euro is to be successful, it must have a solid economic foundation. The primary driver of a currency’s value is its ability to maintain its purchasing power. The single largest threat to maintaining purchasing power is inflation, so the job of the EU has been to prevent inflationary forces from undermining the euro.

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved Exchange Rate Regimes: The Future All exchange rate regimes must deal with the tradeoff between rules and discretion (vertical), as well as between cooperation and independence (horizontal). The pre WWI Gold Standard required adherence to rules and allowed independence. The Bretton Woods agreement (and to a certain extent the EMS) also required adherence to rules in addition to cooperation. The present system is characterized by no rules, with varying degrees of cooperation. Many believe that a new international monetary system could succeed only if it combined cooperation among nations with individual discretion to pursue domestic social, economic, and financial goals.