Nov. 24/ :30pmGeog Environment, Health and Equity (Cutter, 1995) Geography 3432 Environment and Health

Nov. 24/ :30pmGeog Discussion What is environmental equity?

Nov. 24/ :30pmGeog Definitions environmental justice general, but more political than “equity”, born in USA emphasis on remedial action to correct inequities arose out of environmental racism movement principles: –protection from environmental degradation –prevention of adverse health effects –culpability – ability to hold polluters responsible –burden of proof – guilty until proven innocent –remedial action – in cases of identified injustice

Nov. 24/ :30pmGeog Definitions environmental equity sharing of benefits and burdens of production two forms –equal sharing (typical) –sharing proportional to consumption

Nov. 24/ :30pmGeog Definitions procedural equity emphasis on causal mechanisms for inequitable outcomes extent to which governmental rules/regulations, enforcement, treaties, and sanctions applied in a nondiscriminatory way e.g., environmental assessment process

Nov. 24/ :30pmGeog Definitions outcome equity distribution of benefits and burdens spatial temporal (generational equity)

Nov. 24/ :30pmGeog Definitions social equity underpins environmental equity social and economic factors that typically coincide with environmental equity issues e.g., class, race, gender, political power often environmental equity solutions are social equity solutions (e.g., income assistance)

Case Example The case of Camden New JerseyCamden New Jersey Nov. 24/ :30pmGeog 34328

Nov. 24/ :30pmGeog Context 1970s-80s environmental movement and civil rights movement “merged” – pressure on US federal government – emphasis on waste 1990 USEPA – Environmental Equity Workgroup 1992 – EEW report released – inequities exist 1994 Clinton – Executive Order – address human health and environmental effects of all federal agency programs no similar legislation in Canada or Ontario

Nov. 24/ :30pmGeog Discussion How would you test for spatial equity? –what challenges? How would you test for procedural equity? –what challenges?

Nov. 24/ :30pmGeog Research Issues for Assessing Outcome Equity environmental threat often single exposure type (e.g., MSW) increasing emphasis on multi-exposure distance - plume modeling, wind direction etc rare geographic scale/unit this has proven critical, results often flip flop depending on scale e.g., census tract, dissemination area (enumeration area), county

Nov. 24/ :30pmGeog Research Issues for Assessing Outcome Equity subpopulation race, ethnicity, income, gender, age research may reflect homogeneity local subpopulations e.g., study in the South only, potential false negatives high proportion people of colour time most studies cross-sectional more longitudinal research needed

Nov. 24/ :30pmGeog What constitutes “equity”? Is it procedurally equitable if: all qualifying sites have equal chance of being selected AND/OR some acceptable amount of benefit accrues to local community AND/OR “outcome” is equitable?

Nov. 24/ :30pmGeog What constitutes inequity? outcome is equitable if: hazardous sites are located in disadvantaged communities no more frequently than other communities What are some implications of each requirement?

Nov. 24/ :30pmGeog (Example) Evidence for Outcome Equity Inequities Exist AuthorExposureSubpop n FindingLimitations USGAO (1983) large hazardous waste facilities in the South - race- 3 of 4 sites 52%, 66%, and 90% AA - only 4 sites - indicative of problem UCCCRJ (1987) commercial hazardous waste facilities and “uncontrolled” waste sites -race - national, zip code - communities with 1+ facilities 2 times AA or His pop n vs no facility - use zip codes for spatial unit – may be too large Mohai and Bryant (1992) commercial hazardous waste facilities - race, SES - - Detroit and surrounding counties -48% AA within 1 mile, 39% miles, 18% 1.5+ miles - not SES -case study - Detroit predominantly AA, esp. in area studied (74%) USGAO- US Government Accounting Office; UCCCRJ – United Church of Christ Committee for Racial Justice; AA – African American; His - Hispanic

Nov. 24/ :30pmGeog Evidence for Outcome Equity Inequities Exist, Only Sometimes AuthorExposureSubpop n FindingLimitations Aderton et al. (1994) treatment storage and disposal facilities (TSDF) - race, SES - national, census tract -no inequity within tracts - inequity increases with scale (AA, His, poverty) - %employed and %industrial much better predictors of TSDFs - only waste facilities - Study funded by Waste Management Incorporated – may bias interpretation Hird (1993)Superfund NPL sites -SES - national, county - no inequities by SES - county spatial unit may be too large

Nov. 24/ :30pmGeog Evidence for Outcome Equity Inequities Exist, Only Sometimes AuthorExposureSubpop n FindingLimitations Zimmerman (1993) Superfund NPS sites -race, ethnicity - national, county - fewer AA communities had remedial action plans - superfund sites only

Nov. 24/ :30pmGeog Inequity Exists…Sometimes Anderton et al (1994) differences not as predicted for AA, yes for dwelling value, almost for His % Controls: industrial employment, employment %, older dwelling also significant ; % male employed opposite of predicted Source: Anderton et al. (1994)

Nov. 24/ :30pmGeog Source: Anderton et al. (1994) Inequity Exists…Sometimes Anderton et al (1994) differences not as predicted for AA, yes for His and dwelling value % industrial employment, employment, %, older dwelling also significant

Nov. 24/ :30pmGeog Measuring Exposure is Key, GIS Helps! proportional assignment through buffering 80% = 0.8 of a facility; 20% = 0.2 of a facility

Nov. 24/ :30pmGeog Which Came First which came first, disadvantaged or the facility? only two significant, and in the opposite direction expected (South Carolina, TRI) Source: Mitchell et al. (1999)

Nov. 24/ :30pmGeog Which Came First? Source: Mitchell et al. (1999) which came first, disadvantaged or the facility? 4 significant in the opposite of expected direction, 2 in expected (both rural)

Nov. 24/ :30pmGeog Source: Mitchell et al. (1999) Which Came First? by 1990 all significant except rural minority few inequities to start and grown over time Been 1994, finds no change over time Does it matter which came first if the resultant pattern is inequitable?

Nov. 24/ :30pmGeog Source: Jerrett et al. (2001) A Canadian Example

Nov. 24/ :30pmGeog Canadian Example: Hamilton Source: Jerrett et al. (2001)

Nov. 24/ :30pmGeog Jerrett et al (2001) air quality, exposure measure through local monitoring stations NOT distance from facility! SES inequities as predicted how you model matters…somewhat: –SAR drops low income and adds unemployment dwelling value most consistent predictor (more stable than income as a measure of SES) Canadian Example: Hamilton

Nov. 24/ :30pmGeog Canadian Example: Ethnicity and Pollution in Hamilton Source: Buzzelli and Jerrett, 2004Buzzelli and Jerrett, 2004

Nov. 24/ :30pmGeog Procedural Equity far fewer studies of procedural equity What types of methods might be used to assess procedural equity?

Nov. 24/ :30pmGeog Procedural Equity and Scale not in my back yard (NIMBY)? process of opposition whereby facilities are placed where resistance is least – often disadvantaged Case of Lincolnville Nova ScotiaLincolnville Nova Scotia NIMBY on a larger scale – movement to developing world

Nov. 24/ :30pmGeog Procedural Equity and Scale

Nov. 24/ :30pmGeog Procedural Equity and Scale not in my back yard (NIMBY)? “I mean it’s pretty intimidating to have three or four white people in your community and you don’t know what the hell is going on and they’re talking about cells and there is going to be 17 cells. Well I asked one of the elders of the community, “do you know what cells mean?” All they could think was a jail cell. They [the municipality] knew the mentality of what they were working with and they did the minimum to move forward. There was never any consultation about how it would affect the residents of the community.” (Lincolnville resident)

Nov. 24/ :30pmGeog Implications Triple Jeopardy for the Disadvantaged 1.increased risks from social and behavioural determinants of health (e.g. smoking); 2.higher risks from high ambient pollution exposure; 3.an effect modification that makes exposure to ambient pollutants exert disproportionately large health effects on them compared with advantaged groups.

Nov. 24/ :30pmGeog Addressing Inequities To what extent should concerns about environmental equity/justice guide environmental (or other) policy? How might we address the issue of environmental equity/justice in policy at all three levels (national, state/provincial, municipal)?