The History of Computers You will learn about the developments in computing and other related technologies that were made from the 1940’s onward.

History Part II: The Electronic Computers The ABC The ENIAC The British code breaking computers Stored program computers

The People Behind The ABC (Atanasoff-Berry-Computer) John Atanasoff A professor at Iowa State College (now Iowa State university) Clifford Berry A graduate student studying under Atanasoff

Motivations For Developing The ABC Atanasoff was researching methods of solving complex mathematical equations. He started by modifying the small IBM calculator that was leased to the college to see if it could solve these problems. Image Credit: Microsoft

Motivations For Developing The ABC (2) His modifications were extensive The folks at IBM weren’t happy with the modifications Image Credit: Microsoft

Motivations For Developing The ABC (3) Atanasoff then decided to build his own machine. Unfortunately this proved to be more of a daunting task than he first anticipated. After a particularly frustrating night he decided to take a break from the lab. This lead to an astonishing break through! Image credit: Microsoft Image Credit: Microsoft Image Credit: Microsoft Build his own: Based on the XP that he gained from modifying the IBM machine he thought that he could build his own computer. Daunting: Unfortunately there was little expertise at Iowa state so the guy was largely on his own. So after working late in the lab he decided to go for a drink Iowa was a dry state under prohibition so he drive 200 miles to Illinois. The long relaxing drive combined with some bouts of scotch put him back in a state of mind so he could re-approach his problem. He recalled a book that his mother gave him as a child about non-decimal based number systems and he then realized that it would be easier to build his machine if it were based on binary rather than decimal. During the rest of the evening he sketched out the design for his machine on the cocktail napkins in the bar Wav file from “James Tam”

The First Electronic Computer: The ABC After enlisting the aid of Berry and several years of hard work the ABC was nearly completed at a cost of $6000 (including the $450 paid to Berry) in 1942. It was the first prototype electronic computer! Photo of replica ABC credit to: Bob Elbert / Iowa State University (accessed Dec 2014) Atanasoff Needed a computer to perform the specialized calculations that his research demanded. Inspiration Atanasoff couldn’t find a computer that could do the calculations that he needed Decide to build one himself He was faced with design problem after design problem Finally took some time off and went to a bar In the bar he remember a book that his mother gave him about alternative number systems He was able to solve some of his problems by having the computer based on binary rather than decimal. He wrote his ideas down on some bar napkins.

The Moore School Of Electrical Engineering It was a major provider of technical and computing resources for the US arm (Ordinance department, ballistics research lab) Current approaches to calculate trajectories were too slow and work on the ENIAC was began to solve these problems. Image Credit: Microsoft * The Moore school got a lot of it’s funding from the US army.

The People Behind The ENIAC John Mauchly A Physics professor at Ursin College. Produced the overall design of the ENIAC J. Presper Eckert A lab instructor at the Moore School Designed the individual circuits of the ENIAC Joseph Chedaker Supervised the construction team From www.computermuseum.li (2012) Image © Michael Denning from www.computerhistory.org (2012) Mauchly was taking some government sponsored courses at the Moore School. Eckert was the lab instructor. They soon noticed that Mauchly was well ahead of the rest of the class so while everyone else worked on the lab exercises the two would discuss advanced topics in electronics. In the ENIAC project Chedaker looked after the actual building of the machine: supervised people who were moonlighting factory workers or guys who worked on the telephone lines. Image Credit: Microsoft

Second Electronic Computer: The ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator Calculator) Completed in 1949 for $500,000 The machine was huge and required a great deal of resources Filled a room (x100 times bigger than comparable machines of the time) 30 tons 140,000 watts “…the most complex bit of electronic ever put together” (Michael R. Williams “A history of computing technology”). ~ wiring of the US telephone network Image © University of Pennsylvania (2012) U.S. army The ENIAC was used in ballistics research

The ABC And The ENIAC The ABC was the first prototype electronic computer (not quite completed): 1942. The ENIAC was the first fully operational electronic computer (finished): 1949. ABC: not fully completed e.g., addition and subtraction only, Atanasoff took up a position with the navy during the war

World War II: Code Breaking And Computing The Allies The Axis The enigma machines British code breaking machines/projects The machines of Bletchley Park (‘bombs’) The Robinsons The Colossus (and the Colossi!) ABC: not fully completed e.g., addition and subtraction only, Atanasoff took up a position with the navy during the war Images credit: Microsoft

German Enigma Machines The Enigma machines: used before and during WWII by Germany as an encryption device. There were two version: one for the military and one for business. The sheer number of possible combinations (100 billion!) made mere possession of the machines useless. Enigma (setup to Combination 456,118) Troop deployments: Stalingrad: 10 divisions Normandy: 3 divisions Enigma (setup to Combination 456,118) %j*e82N,: 9*!jn3n2@#n+ R~&b4n#@’? The transmitting machines would all use one combination and if the receiving machine didn’t have the identical setup it would only receive gibberish. The combinations were changed daily towards the end of the war.

An Enigma Machine Image courtesy of James Tam (Imperial War museum: London England)

The British Code And Cipher School Worked on deciphering the German codes at Bletchley Park outside of London: Intelligence work involved a great deal of secrecy: Information was strictly on a “need to know basis” for the people working there. Even now much of the information is still classified “Official Secrets Act”: http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1989/6/contents Talk about how the Brits and Canadians appear to be even more secretive than the Americans. Even many years well after the war many people can’t/won’t talk about their work.

Alan Turing A distinguished British Mathematician from Cambridge. Image from the History of Computing Technology by Michael R. Williams (Original: National Physical Laboratory): 2012 Alan Turing A distinguished British Mathematician from Cambridge. He worked at Bletchley Park as a code-breaker (contributed to the design of the machinery as well as applying his Mathematical knowledge). A serious athlete! “Alan Turing achieved world-class Marathon standards. His best time of 2 hours, 46 minutes, 3 seconds, was only 11 minutes slower than the winner in the 1948 Olympic Games. In a 1948 cross-country race he finished ahead of Tom Richards who was to win the silver medal in the Olympics.” -- From: http://www.turing.org.uk Eccentric: Didn’t care what people thought e.g., biked to work but had hay fever so he wore a gas mask His chain would sometimes come off the sprocket Instead of bringing it for repair he noticed how many times that wheel would rotate before the chain feel off and he would dismount before that. He found this to be a waste of mental energy so he devised a device that would do the counting automatically and warn him just as the chain was about to come off and he installed on his bike Scholar: Book smart vs. street smart Thought that Germans wanted to invade England (reasonable since it was the only major power left to oppose it during the first part of the war). He prepared for the invasion by converting his life savings to silver and burying it two separate locations outside of Bletchley Park. After the war he forget where he put his money.

British Code Breaking Machines The ‘bombs’ were the first set of devices and were based on machines produced by the Poles. The combination of secrecy surrounding the work at Bletchley Park and the code names used, ‘work on bombs’ resulted in a great deal of confusion. “…but the only thing these bombs destroyed was the German Air Force message security” (Michael R. Williams “A History of Computing Technology”). (Heath) Robinson machines Unreliable ‘Proof of concept’: showed that high speed electronic devices could still aid in the decoding process (Enigma) The Colossus (eventually “the colossi”) Addressed the reliability problem of the Heath Robinson machines Miraculously the first one was completed in less than a year. “Many more” were soon requested (1944) Bombas: named bomb because of the ticking sound they made. Robinsons: three were made, first was the Heath Robinson Colossus: they worked so well that it was viewed as a savior machine. After completing the first machine the head of the project asked for advance notice if more machines were required because it took a lot of work to build the first one. But he had the foresight to start working on others before they were even requested. In March 1944 he suddenly had a request for many more which had to be completed before June 1, 1944 (allied invasion of Normandy). Fortunately by working on one of the machines early the second colossus machine was completed 5 days before the invasion.

Before The First Stored Program Computers Before these computers were developed existing machines received their instructions from: Punch card Punch tape Punch card/tape images courtesy of James Tam Punch card: very slow even compared to hard disk accesses. Re-wiring: programming the computer to do another task required the skills of an electrician.

Stored Program Computer (SPC): Originator? Why it’s important. It’s a fundamental part of modern computers and many electronics The answer It’s shrouded in a great deal of controversy. The location where the idea was developed The Moore School (the team that developed the ENIAC) The person most widely credited with coming up with the idea John Von Neumann He received so much notoriety that modern computers are sometimes referred to as “Von Neumann machines”. Image © Alan Richards from www.computerhistory.org (2012) Controversy: Essentially this is saying who invested the first modern computer. Royalties would make Billy Boy Gates look like a Pauper. (You’d have a total stranglehold over the market: Everyone making a computer would have to pay a royalty fee to you and you could charge whatever you wanted). Idea: No debate that the idea came from the Moore School (Eckert and Mauchly) Von Neumann: Visited the school, most credited with coming up with the idea. He was one of the most brilliant mathematicians of his time (uncanny ability to solve problems that others couldn’t) Probably not, he never claimed credit but he never denied it either. He simply wrote down the ideas of others that were bouncing around the Moore School and because he was the only author of that paper he was the one attributed with first coming up with the idea.

First SPC: The Manchester Machine After the end of the war many of the people who worked at Bletchley Park obtained jobs at Manchester university. In 1948 the Manchester machine was the first fully electronic machine that operated based on the instructions stored in it’s memory. However the initial machine was extremely limited in it’s capabilities: The instruction set consisted of subtractions, conditional branches and a ‘stop’ instruction. Image © University of Manchester from www.computerhistory.org (2012) It didn’t have a word size, it was purely serial and could only perform operations on one BIT of information at a time. The instructions that it could handle was to perform a 1’s complement negation and add as well as a conditional branch

History Part III: Modern Times History of the microcomputer History of the Internet User interfaces: command line, graphical user interfaces (GUI), the mouse

History Of The Microcomputer The microprocessor The first popular microcomputer for home users: Altair Microsoft and it’s influence on Microcomputers The IBM-PC History of Apple computers The attack of the clones and the rise of Microsoft

Recall: Computers Before The Microprocessor Room sized computer that weighted 60 tons Only large companies or organizations could afford to buy and maintain. Image © University of Pennsylvania (2012)

The First Microprocessor Produced by Intel in the early 1970’s It’s development revolutionized computers by allowing computers to be more widely used. From the “Intel museum” www.intel.com (2012) Information from Intel: http://www.intel.com/about/companyinfo/museum/exhibits/4004/facts.htm (size of a finger nail) The first microprocessor was the 4004 (1971) 1/6 inch long x 1/8 inch wide but had more computing power than the ENIAC Powered some of NASA’s spacecraft in 1970’s Revolutionized computers because the microprocessor was small which made computers small which it possible for more people and organizations to own one themselves. Explain my definition of microcomputer: a computer that uses the microprocessor (typically this type of computer is referred to as the PC but this is confusing because IBM produced a computer brand known as the IBM-PC but it wasn’t the only computer that used a microprocessor, also Apple Computers produced models of computers that were powered by the microprocessor but weren’t referred to as PC’s).

What Is A Microcomputer? Sometimes it’s referred to as a ‘PC’ (Personal Computer) Explain my definition of microcomputer: a computer that uses the microprocessor (typically this type of computer is referred to as the PC but this is confusing because IBM produced a computer brand known as the IBM-PC but it wasn’t the only computer that used a microprocessor, also Apple Computers produced models of computers that were powered by the microprocessor but weren’t referred to as PC’s). Image courtesy of James Tam

The First Popular Computer For Home Users: The Altair It came out in the mid 1970’s targeted specifically for home users It could be purchased in an assemble it yourself kit form To assemble it you had to actually do soldering work You had to assemble it yourself But it provided some of the computing power of larger and more expensive computers for home users and was considered a bargain at just under $400 Images © Mark Richards from www.computerhistory.org (2012)

Note: Most Computer Users At The Time Were Extremely Technically-Oriented 1 Enter The keyboard used by REAL programmers Image credit: Microsoft

Microsoft’s Influence On Microcomputers IBM OS??? Before releasing their first computer they needed an operating system for it to run Tried to develop it’s own operating system but quickly abandoned the idea and instead decided to rely on some other company: There were too many delays in developing internally and the management realized that in the home computer market any further delays in putting out a computer would be fatal. Image copyright unknown

Microsoft’s Influence On Microcomputers (2) IBM approached two companies as possible vendors of an operating system to run it’s computers: Digital Research Microsoft IBM and Microsoft worked out an arrangement to have a version of Microsoft’s DOS (Disk Operating System) run IBM computers: PC-DOS. Approached two companies: Digital Research (refused) and then what was then a small company, Microsoft. The operating system was a simple command line driven interface and was licensed to IBM as PC-DOS, however Microsoft was still free to sell the operating system to other computer manufacturers under the name of MS-DOS

Microsoft’s Influence On Microcomputers (3) The interface of PC/MS-DOS has been criticized as being user-unfriendly. Command Effect of the command

Microsoft’s Influence On Microcomputers (4) However the interface of PC/MS-DOS was a significant improvement over other operating systems of the day. Digital Research Inc.: CP/M operating system Reboot computer Wrong disk!!! Image Credit: Microsoft first large software company in the microcomputer world.[ Digital acquired by Novell in 1991 Image copyright unknown

Microsoft’s Influence On Microcomputers (4) However the interface of PC/MS-DOS was a significant improvement over other operating systems. PC/MS-DOS operating system Abort, retry, fail? Wrong disk!!! Correct disk Add in: Abort, retry, fail Image Credit: Microsoft Image copyright unknown

The IBM PC (Personal Computer: 1981) IBM was a large company but a late comer into the microcomputer market. As mentioned the IBM PC used an operating system produced by Microsoft. www.computerhistory.org (2012) OS: PC-DOS (as marketed by IBM), MS-DOS (same thing that Microsoft was allowed to sell to other computer manufacturers)

The IBM PC (Personal Computer: 1981): 2 With the entry of IBM in the microcomputer market, many developers produced a plethora of software. IBM PC Word processing Accounting software Spreadsheets Games

The IBM PC (Personal Computer: 1981): 3 Apple entered the microcomputer market sooner and already had an established market when IBM began to first market the PC. Because of the prevalence of so much software the IBM-PC soon overtook the Apple in sales. IBM sales Apple sales IBM sales Apple sales There were many other important microcomputer manufacturers (omitted for brevity)

The History Of Apple Computers: Steve And Steve Apple was founded by Steven Jobs and Steve Wozniac in Silicon Valley garage. Steve Wozniac Steven Jobs Images © Apple Computer, Inc. from www.computerhistory.org (2012)

The Apple I Computer (1976) Extras It was far from the standard of a modern computer Built by Steve Wozniak by hand (purportedly in the living room of Steve Job’s parents). Not a modern computer: CPU, RAM, motherboard and ‘graphic’ chips to process the text display, no keyboard, no monitor, not even a case! – owner had to manually wire up their own ASCII keyboard Originally sold for 666.66 although one was auctioned for over $200k http://articles.cnn.com/2010-11-23/tech/apple.computer.auction_1_jobs-and-wozniak-apple-1-computer?_s=PM:TECH

The Apple II Computer (1977) It was a simpler and more powerful design than the Altair The color graphics were superior to larger and more expensive computers Strong selling points Name Appearance It was simpler more powerful design than the Altair It had fewer chips than the Altair but they outperformed them Unlike it’s home computer competitors it had color graphics that were better than more expensive mini and mainframe computers Strong selling points: It was house in an attractive case and had a non-threatening, non-technical name Started out with cassette storage but a 5.25” disk drive was developed (113 Kbytes) VisiCalc the first spreadsheet program (visible calculator) but Apple wasn’t interested in the program. “It was the software tail that wagged the hardware dog”: Many people would come into stores and ask for VisiCalc and then the computer Apple II needed to run it. Two reasons for Apple’s popularity: could play games fun games and they could run VisiCalc (funny how the Mac/PC commercials mock the PC for being so good at running spreadsheet applications: show the video) Images (2012) Apple II: www.computerhistory.org Donkey Kong: www.donkeykong.gamebub.com

The Apple II Computer (1977): 2 The storage device was primitive by today’s standards but actually sufficient to meet the needs of the time VisiCalc: “It was the software tail that wagged the hardware dog”1 Storage device: Started out with cassette storage but a 5.25” disk drive was developed (113 Kbytes) VisiCalc VisiCalc the first spreadsheet program (visible calculator) but Apple wasn’t interested in the program. “It was the software tail that wagged the hardware dog”: Many people would come into stores and ask for VisiCalc and then the computer Apple II needed to run it. Two reasons for Apple’s popularity: could play games fun games and they could run VisiCalc (funny how the Mac/PC commercials mock the PC for being so good at running spreadsheet applications: show the video) Images (2012) Apple II: www.computerhistory.org Donkey Kong: www.donkeykong.gamebub.com 1 “Just for Fun” (Chapters 2,3) by Torvalds and Diamond

First Graphical Interface Xerox star hardware picture: www.flickr.com/photos/mwichary (2012) First Graphical Interface Contrary to popular belief it was not invented by Apple. Xerox star: pioneered the GUI in 1981: Other GUI-based computers: Apple {Lisa (1983), McIntosh (1984)}, the Commodore Amiga 1000 (1985). Although it was a technical innovation the Star was regarded as a business failure. It was Apple (and others such as Commodore) who successfully mass marketed a GUI-based computer. Image of Xerox Star screen from Xerox brochure Failure Too expensive Marketed wrong: shows ads of execs making calls and typing up letters (in those days secretaries did all that and Wang successfully marketed their product towards the right audience).

The Apple Lisa (1983) The first GUI-based computer produced by Apple: the Lisa incorporated many of the features of the Xerox Star. Like the Star it was expensive ($10K) and sales were weak. Image © Mark Richards from www.computerhistory.org (2012)

The Apple Macintosh (1984) Apple’s next computer was the Macintosh It incorporated the best features of the Lisa but was sold at a substantially lower price ~$2.4K Compared to the IBM-PC it was a price/performance vs. ease of use tradeoff Image © Mark Richards from www.computerhistory.org (2012) Affordable price: Lisa $10K,~ Macintosh $2000 Extra features: GUI and a mouse IBM: cheaper and ran programs faster because it was non-graphical, Macintosh: costlier, easier to use but slower because it had a graphical interface

The Attack Of The Clones Although it was a late entry into the microcomputer market IBM eventually dominated. IBM sales Apple sales

The Attack Of The Clones (2) Although the IBM-PC was marketed and sold under the IBM brand most of the parts were not manufactured in-house. Processor: Company A Image copyright unknown Hard drive: Company B Image copyright unknown IBM-PC Even for a company as large as IBM, it couldn’t by itself produce each and every component for their computers. Probably didn’t have the time and expertise. Consequently a multitude of other companies produced those parts. Processor: Intel Drives: Quantum, Seagate, Western Digital Expansion cards: Sound (Ad-Lib, Roland, Creative), Graphics (ATI, NVIDIA) etc. Floppy drive: Company C Image copyright unknown Expansion card: Company D Image Credit: Microsoft

The Attack Of The Clones (3) The parts manufacturers were free to sell their components to other companies. About the same time that the IBM-PC was sold, three ex-employees of Texas Instruments founded their own company: Compaq. They conceived of the idea of producing their own copy of the IBM-PC under their own brand name. It would run under MS-DOS and be 100% compatible with application software written for the PC. The first IBM-PC clone was delivered by Compaq in 1983. IBM-PC Compaq clone

The Attack Of The Clones (4) This opened the flood gates for other computer manufacturers to produce their own clone computers. Compaq clone IBM-PC Mom and pop shop clone Dell clone

The Attack Of The Clones (5) The result was that IBM eventually lost control over the computer architecture that it was the first one to market. IBM sales Apple sales Microsoft operating system IBM sales Apple sales Compaq sales Dell sales Mom & pop shop sales First chart: IBM running MS-DOS dominated the market over Apple Second chart: A few years later Apple computer sales was still probably lower than the sale of the IBM-PC, more important was that there were other manufacturers of clone computers. Together the sales of all these clone computers by far out numbered the sales of Apple computers. Software manufacturers saw which market was larger and even more tended to produce software for IBM and clone computers. The common thread among these computes was that they all ran under MS-DOS who became the real winner.

The Attack Of The Clones: The Rise Of Microsoft The loser of the clone war was IBM. The real winner of the clone war was Microsoft. By the 1990’s Microsoft developed an interface for MS-DOS that incorporated some of the features of the MAC GUI. Windows 3 image from www.microsoft.com (2012) The incorporation of a graphical interface into the Microsoft OS further eroded Apple’s market share Although the initial version of the GUI, was not as easy to use as MAC-OS with each version it’s gotten better and easier to use e.g., Windows Vista has the fish-eye effect for menus.

Origins Of The Internet What was happening in the 1950’s The Cold War NATO: lead by the USA Vs. Warsaw pack: lead by the USSR Image Credit: Microsoft

The Cold War And The Space Race At the same time that each side (USSR-USA) was trying to be dominant on the ground they also wanted to be dominant in space. Both sides tried to be the first to send a satellite into space. In the 1950’s it appeared that the USSR had a technological edge: Americans in 1957: A sophisticated three stage rocket was planned as the first human-made vehicle to be spent into space. The USSR in 1957: surprised the world by launching Sputnik I (first artificial satellite). The launch of Sputnik helped motivate the creation of ARPA (Advanced Research Projects Agency) in the US. Image Credit: Microsoft 50

The Cold War And The Space Race (2) Later in 1957 the USSR launched another satellite carrying the dog Laika “bark/barker” on a one way trip into space :’( Image Credit: Alexander Chernov/ Virtual Space Museum/ NASA

ARPA APRA was a branch of the ministry of defense. The focus was on: Getting different types of computers communicating

ARPANET The first computers were connected via ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network). The initial ARPANET consisted of 2 host computers which were connected at the start of 1969 (birth of the early Internet!) from the following locations: UCLA Stanford A standard protocol was used so the computers could communicate UCLA Stanford Definition: A network host is a computer connected to a computer network. 53

ARPANET (2) Later additional hosts were added to the network (end of 1969) from: The University of California (Santa Barbara) The University of Utah UCLA Stanford U of California U of Utah

The First Data Sent On The Internet1 Originally the message ‘login’ was to be transmitted. But the transmission stopped (i.e., it “died” after the first two characters). …and thus ‘LO’ the Internet was born! 1 “On the Way to the Web” (Michael A. Banks, Wiley)

Important Milestones Of The Internet The first "hot application” was introduced by Ray Tomlinson. 1989: The ideas behind the World Wide Web were first described in a paper. 1990: The ARPANET was shut down. The first Internet search program Archie was developed at McGill university. 1991: The World Wide Web was released to the public. Image Credit: Microsoft

The History Of The World Wide Web From www.computerhistory.org (2012) Designed in 1989 by Tim Berners-Lee and scientists in Geneva who were interested in making it easier to share research documents. Documents could be linked through a protocol called http (hyper text transfer protocol). Documents were made available for free browsing and downloading from the web (substantially easier than the alternative). 1990: The first web browser “WorldWideWeb” (later renamed ‘Nexus’1 was written. 1993: Mark Andreessen of NCSA (National Center for Super Computing Applications) launched Mosaic X the first popular web browser. The web is only a part of the Internet (other parts include email, ftp for sharing files etc.) They developed a mechanism so that documents could be linked through a protocol called http (hyper text transfer protocol) - think about web links that that you to another document that may have text, images, links to other documents. Show a link and indicate that the link can link to basically any document that the web supports. Documents were made available for free browsing and downloading from the web (much easier than browsing paper indices of university, filling in paper work and sending in the request). 1993 Mark Andreessen of NCSA (National Center for SuperComputing Applications) launched Mosaic X the first popular web browser. Free to download, install and use and by 1994 it had tens of thousands users. Mosaic's features were adopted by Netscape which was later adopted by FireFox although none of them shared code 1 http://www.w3.org/People/Berners-Lee/WorldWideWeb.html

The History Of The World Wide Web (2) From www.computerhistory.org (2012) Prior to the advent of the WWW the Internet was largely used by a niche user group. The advent of the WWW drastically changed that. Now some people even equate the World-Wide-Web with the Internet itself! But the Internet was still largely unused: obscure text-based commands, documentation was in highly technical form, presentation unattractive (courier fonts, no color, probably minimal graphics). Main attractions for business: email, online discussion groups and chat facilities. Because http allowed for attractive web sites to be created and the ease at which these sites could be accessed through an ever increasingly large number of people using web browsers this opened up the Internet beyond the traditional two groups (academics – mostly scientists and those who used it for email and online discussion groups). Attractive looking locations on the Internet could be created because most any document could be linked via http.

The Mouse 1962: ARPA (under JCR Licklider) provided a special fund to realize the vision of a “mechanically enhanced man”. It came out of a paper published by Licklider (before he joined ARPA) where he “…forecast a future that will involve a very close coupling between the human and electronic members of the [human-technology] partnership.”1 Douglas Engelbart applied for funding. 1 “A History of Modern Computing” (Paul Ceruzzi: MIT Press 2003)

The Mouse (2) Engelbart spent his time studying an experimenting with ways to improve communication between people and computers. 1967: he described (his most famous) invention, the mouse. http://gajitz.com (2012)

You Should Now Know: History Part II When were the different categories of computers completed and what were some of their distinguishing features: The computers of the electronic revolution The first SPC (stored program computer) Who were the people who were involved in the creation of these machines.

You Should Now Know: History Part III How the invention of the microprocessor revolutionized computing What was the first computer that was successfully targeted specifically for the home user What was the influence of Microsoft on microcomputers The history of the IBM-PC The foundation of Apple Computers The history of some of Apple's early computers: Apple I, Apple II, Lisa, Macintosh How IBM lost control over a computer architecture that it developed through the rise of clone computers How the rise of clone computers lead to the market dominance of Microsoft in the microcomputer market

You Should Now Know: History Part III (2) What was the first GUI-driven computer: Xerox Star The early history of the Internet When did it first become operational How it works What were some major milestones and when did they occur When was the WWW invented and who was behind its creation Computer Mouse Who invented the device When was it invented What was the motivation for its creation