Teaching for scientific literacy: Some reflections on the Twenty First Century Science project Peter Campbell, Nuffield Curriculum Centre Robin Millar, University of York

First, some background about the education system in England about the problems facing science education in many countries

Science education in England All pupils study science from age 5 to age 16 Content is specified by the National Curriculum A ‘balanced science’ course equal amounts of biology, chemistry, physics External tests at age 11 and 14 plus teacher assessment of pupils’ progress General Certificate of Education (GCSE) examination at age 16 Free choice of 4 subjects in upper secondary school (usually reduced to 3 in final year) no requirement to include a science subject

Important differences compared with The Netherlands One National Curriculum for all students Not ‘streamed’ secondary education A statutory programme in science from 5-16, not in each of the separate sciences Student progress assessed mainly by external examinations

Science course options Most: Double Award Science Balanced, 20% Some: Single Award Science Balanced, 10% Some: Separate Sciences Must take all three, 20-30% A few: Applied Science Balanced, vocational, 20% Very few: no science For all Science Balanced (equal biology, chemistry, physics, with some Earth Science, astronomy) Approximately 15% of school curriculum time Key Stage 4 (age (GCSE)) Key Stage 3 (age 11-14) Key Stage 5 (age 17-18) Some: AS and A-level in one or more sciences Some: Applied or vocational science courses A few: International Baccalaureate Many: no science course

Science course options (commonest pathway) Most: Double Award Science Balanced, 20% Some: Single Award Science Balanced, 10% Some: Separate Sciences Usually Balanced, 20-30% Some: Applied Science Balanced, vocational, 20% A few: no science For all Science Balanced (equal biology, chemistry, physics, with some Earth Science, astronomy) Approximately 15% of school curriculum time Key Stage 4 (age (GCSE)) Key Stage 3 (age 11-14) Key Stage 5 (age 17-18) Some: AS and A-level in one or more sciences Some: Applied or vocational science courses A few: International Baccalaureate Many: no science course

Number of students taking A-level physics

Students’ Views (n=1227) Strongly disagree % Disagree % Agree % Strongly agree % I like school science better than other subjects I would like to become a scientist I would like to get a job in technology Jenkins, E., & Nelson, N. W. (2005). Important but not for me: Students' attitudes toward secondary school science in England. Research in Science & Technological Education, 23(1),

Science attainment and attitude (from TIMSS, 1999) Average science score % of students (age 14) with high PATS (positive attitude towards science)

An opportunity to explore alternatives Oct. 2000York Science Education Group awarded a contract by the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA) to develop a more flexible model of the science curriculum for year olds, and consult users on this Feb. 2001Report submitted Sept. 2001Asked by QCA to develop detailed outlines for a suite of GCSEs based on the preferred model Mar. 2002Draft curriculum proposals submitted to QCA

A starting point “The science curriculum from 5 to 16 should be seen primarily as a course to enhance general ‘scientific literacy’.” How can we achieve this, whilst also catering for the needs of those who may want to go on to further study?

The central tension The first stages of a training in science Access to basic scientific literacy for somefor all It has to provide: The school science curriculum has to do two jobs. No single curriculum can do both well. What we offer falls between the two stools.

Old curriculum model Most students do Double Award GCSE Science balanced course including biology, chemistry, physics taking 20% of curriculum time

Proposed new curriculum model GCSE Science 10% curriculum time Emphasis on scientific literacy (the science everyone needs to know) for all students GCSE Additional Science 10% curriculum time or GCSE Additional Applied Science 10% curriculum time for many students

Testing the model Piloted in 78 schools from September 2003 Teaching materials developed by Twenty First Century Science project Extensively revised for use from September 2006 when all GCSE Science courses will have a ‘core plus additional’ structure

A ‘scientific literacy’ emphasis – what does it mean in practice?

Giving priority to the kind of understanding of science that is of potential value to everyone …. rather than the kind of understanding of science that only future scientists need. The aim: ‘to ensure that as many students as possible understand science and technology to a degree that will make them feel at home in a modern world and enable them to make informed decisions about important questions that deal with scientific matters.’ (Moore, J.A. (1988). Journal of College Teaching, 17, 445)

Scientific literacy entails being able to read with understanding articles about science in the popular press and to engage in social conversation about the validity of the conclusions. Scientific literacy implies that a person can identify scientific issues underlying national and local decisions and express opinions that are scientifically and technologically informed. Scientific literacy also implies the capacity to pose and evaluate arguments based on evidence and to apply conclusions from such arguments appropriately. Scientific literacy (National Science Education Standards (NRC, 1996))

European Commission (1995) White Paper on Education and Training Clearly this [scientific literacy] does not mean turning everyone into a scientific expert, but enabling them to fulfil an enlightened role in making choices which affect their environment and to understand in broad terms the social implications of debates between experts. (pp )

Scientific literacy in Twenty First Century Science a ‘toolkit’ of ideas and skills that are useful for accessing, interpreting and responding to science, as we encounter it in everyday life

New ‘drivers’ for curriculum content choices Choices not only based on the structure of the scientific disciplines But also informed by the science that people actually meet in everyday life where an understanding might actually make a difference  To what you do  To what you think

What science do we meet everyday? emphasis on health, medicine, environment risk and risk factors claims about correlations and causes issues that arise when scientific ideas are applied

A newspaper survey, July/Aug science-related articles: Daily Mail, The Guardian, Independent on Sunday, Daily Telegraph Science content% Chemicals/chemical change20 Anatomy/physiology17 Cells as a basic unit of life20 Genes17 Earth science11 Reproduction 9 Space 6 Energy sources and uses 6

A newspaper survey - continued Ideas about science% Basis for a personal decision (e.g. diet) 80 Claim involving factor & outcome57 Explanation for some data57 Risk40 Design of an investigation23 Critique of a policy, based on science 23 Ethical dimension23 Quality of data20

What do you need to deal thoughtfully with this? Some understanding of major scientific ideas and explanations Some understanding of science itself: about the methods of scientific enquiry about the nature of scientific knowledge about how science and society inter-relate

Science Explanations The ‘big ideas’ of science For example: e.m. radiation, radioactivity, the structure of the universe What matters is a broad grasp of major ideas and explanations, not disconnected details

Ideas about Science The uncertainty of all data: how to assess it and deal with it How to evaluate evidence of correlations and causes The different kinds of knowledge that science produces (ranging from agreed ‘facts’ to more tentative explanations) How the scientific community works: peer review How to assess levels of risk, and weigh up risks and benefits How individuals and society decide about applications of science

Putting it all together Science Explanations Modules Ideas about Science etc. Teaching is through issues and contexts; but the learning we hope will be ‘durable’ is of Science Explanations and Ideas about Science.

Science modules You and your genes B Air quality C The Earth in the Universe P Keeping healthy B Material choices C Radiation and life P Life on Earth B Food matters C Radioactive materials P Detailed teaching scheme to show how each module can be taught in 12 hours of lesson time This allows time for extension, and for coursework tasks Supported by textbook, photocopy masters, ICT resources

So how is it different? Greater emphasis on Ideas about Science Qualitative grasp of major explanations and models – avoiding unnecessary detail Some new content risk evaluating claims about correlations and risk factors clinical trials More opportunities to talk, discuss, analyse, and develop arguments about science and about its applications and implications

Science … plus Additional Science introduction to major science concepts and ideas that provide the basis for more advanced academic study  emphasis on concepts and models  satisfaction of understanding Additional Applied Science Introduction to science as it is used in contexts other than research  emphasis on how science is applied  satisfaction of practical capability in using standard techniques of measurement, analysis, testing

Additional Science modules Homeostasis B Chemical patterns C Explaining motion P Growth and development B Chemicals of the natural environment C Electric circuits P Brain and mind B Chemical synthesis C The wave model of radiation P Detailed teaching scheme showing how each module can be taught in 12 hours of lesson time Supported by textbook, photocopy masters, ICT resources

Additional Applied Science modules Three modules, chosen from: Life care B Agriculture and food B Scientific detection C Harnessing chemicals C Materials and performance C/P Communication P Teaching scheme for 36 hours of lesson time Supported by textbook, photocopy masters, ICT resources

An example: A6 Materials and performance Ap6.1 People and organisations Ap6.2 Mechanical behaviour of materials Ap6.3 Electrical, thermal and acoustic behaviour of materials Ap6.4 Optical behaviour of materials Ap6.5 Underlying skills and knowledge

Video sequences for applied science The idea: take students on very short, virtual visits, directly-related to classroom activities Diverse locations: Longley farm - from cow to yoghurt Ferraris – testing baby monitors Manufacturing agrochemicals Human performance lab, Middlesex University National Gallery – examining paint Rolls Royce – testing turbine blades Environmental Agency – monitoring a stream Whittington hospital – hoists and gears National Physical Laboratory – measuring temperature

Feedback from pilot school teachers Questionnaires completed by 40 pilot school teachers at end of the first year

Is Core Science successful in improving students’ general scientific literacy? Teachers’ viewsNumber of teachers Very successful9 Successful26 Neutral2 Unsuccessful1 Very unsuccessful2

Sample responses Clearly having an effect. Pupils discussing issues from experience, issues from news, from magazines, both in and out of lessons. Very successful with most students. Students are prepared to discuss a topic, question ideas and listen to others. Students were amazed at first to be asked their opinions on topics. Now they are much more knowledgeable about current scientific issues and willing to express concerns, opinions.

How did students respond? Pilot teachers’ viewsNumber of teachers Much better6 Better21 Same7 Worse4 Much worse1

What did they see as the reasons for this? Students are generally more interested in science as they can see the relevance. [Students’ interest is] Greater because of what’s happening in the news now. Very pleased with the engagement of all abilities of pupils.

Positive aspects identified by teachers (n=40) AspectNo. of teachers Everyday relevance of content, up to date, links to science in the media 23 Computer-based resources provided18 Use of case studies, inclusion of ethical issues, links to citizenship, opportunities to discuss and debate, develops critical thinking 15 Less emphasis on factual content, more emphasis on ideas-about-science 14 Good practical activities, better coursework tasks6 Layout and style of textbook4 Range of learning styles and skills required, encourages independent learning 4

Challenges identified by teachers (n=40) AspectNo. of teachers Language demand of resources, not enough differentiation for weaker students 24 Demand on students to reason, debate; managing such activities in class 15 Fitting everything into time available; finding way around new resources; recognising what is essential for exam success 13 Less practical work11 Being part of a pilot, getting materials at short notice, preparing for new activities 9 Activities that don’t engage some students, specific topics or modules named as difficult 4

What did we do in response? Project worked with pilot schools to: develop new or alternative materials for some activities with lower reading demand more practical activities added to some modules changes to assessment procedures to make these more manageable

End of year 2 (compared with end of year 1) (n=51) Teachers’ views of: More +ve SameLess +ve n.r. The Twenty First Century Science model The core Science course262041

External evaluation of pilot Student learning Compared to students following a more conventional science programme Changes in students’ attitudes towards science and school science Again, compared to students following a more conventional science programme Classroom practices and teaching approaches

Evaluation studies Teachers’ understanding of course, and range of teaching methods, improved during the pilot Positive teacher and student response Greater student interest in reading about science No negative impact on conceptual understanding

Evaluation of pilot: practical outcomes Revised version of course specification from 2006 Fully revised editions of all course materials Differentiated textbooks for Science course

Twenty First Century Science

Suite for 2006 Entry levelGCSE Science GCSE Additional Science GCSE Additional Applied Science GCSE Biology GCSE Chemistry GCSE Physics or Single Award Full range GCSE F and H tiers Single Awards Full range GCSEs F and H tiers Single Awards Full range GCSEs F and H tiers For all studentsFor most studentsFor some students OCR’s Entry Level Course feeds into GCSE Science

What have we learned? Better understanding of the curriculum implications of ‘scientific literacy’ We learn by trying to put our ideas into practice How to integrate ideas about science with science explanations (content) That teachers and students in general respond very positively to a ‘scientific literacy’ approach That considerable teacher support is needed to make it work well That we need to develop better ways of assessing the learning outcomes we value

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