Conceptualizing and Perceiving Culture January 24, 2010 Group 1 MGT 4375-BOAL

Introduction “Soft” field No “hard and bottom line” Concept Perception Various definitions and types Perception Individual view -Unlike subjects such as Finance and Accounting, the subject of Culture is seen as a soft field -Unfortunately, culture does not have a “hard and bottom line” like other subjects -Today we will discuss the concept of culture, including the various definitions and types, and the way individuals perceive cultures and why do they see it that way

2.1: Why are there so many definitions of culture? Personal definitions Expert definitions Wide variations -Why are there so many definitions of culture? -There are personal definitions -There are numerous expert definitions -

Culture Definitions Culture... “consists of patterns, explicit, and implicit, of and for behavior acquired and transmitted by symbols...” Alfred Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn (1952) Some definition examples include Alfred Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn’s definition that states “Culture consists of patterns, explicit, and implicit, of and for behavior acquired and transmitted by symbols...” -Geert Hofstede refers to culture as “mental programming.” His view on culture is that it is analogous to the software that allows computers to operate -Impossible for an individual to live without it -Most interesting feature: it allows one to fill in the blanks Mental programming” Geert Hofstede (2001)

Culture Definitions cont. Is “communication” Edward and Mildred Hall (1990) Is “a shared meaning system found among those who speak a particular language dialect, during a specific historical period, and in a definable geographical region.” Harry Triandis (2002) -Edward and Mildred Hall define culture as “communication.” It allows the ability to communicate within and across cultures -Metaphor to music: If you can read the music, then you can play and sing comfortably -Harry Triandis defines culture as “a shared meaning system found among those who speak a particular language dialect, during a specific historical period, and in a definable geographical region.” -His focus on language, time period, and geographical region allows us to theorize clearly how and why cultures develop -Under this definition, one can understand how cultural change occurs -Culture links individuals to groups but allows for individual variability -Within culture, there are many types and unitsggg

Definition of Culture General terms: encompassing values and practices Specific definition: tailored to task at hand -In short, culture can be defined in the general terms of encompassing values and practices -If there is a specific definition, especially one that involves formal research, then the definition should be tailored to the task at hand -When defining culture, one should include the essential features of culture. Providing an appropriate definition allows the definition to be acceptable and advisable.

2.2: Can there be a very large and a very small number of cultures? Travelers’ experience with various cultures Harry Triandis’ 32-item scale Four cell typology Dimensions: Individualism-Collectivism Power Distance -Travelers and visitors have been exposed to many cultures and see the variety of cultures that our world has. -Some believe the specific types can be placed into general types of cultures

Triandis’ Four Generic Types of Culture HC, horizontal collectivism Community sharing cultures Communist societies VC, vertical collectivism Authority-Ranking cultures 70% of the world’s culture Africa Latin America Asia -HC represents horizontal collectivism. Under this characterization, there is a low degree of power distance and a high degree of collectivism. -A community-sharing culture arises from this. -In theory, a Communist society would stress a national community-sharing orientation, but there are no nations that suggest practice. -Historically, Communist societies have idealized to each his own, but corruption led to disproportionate rewards. -VC represents Vertical collectivism. Under this characterization, there is a high degree of both power distance and collectivism which creates an authority-ranking culture. -This type of culture exists in approximately 70% of the world. -This exists in many parts of -Africa -Latin America -Asia

Triandis’ Four Generic Types of Culture cont. HI, horizontal individualism Equality-Matching cultures Balance market pricing with equal emphasis on a very generous welfare system Countries: Sweden Denmark VI, vertical individualism Market-Pricing cultures United States of America -HI stands for horizontal collectivism. This has a low degree of both power distance and a high degree of individualism. -An equality-matching culture arises from this. -They are able to match equality by balancing market pricing with an equal emphasis on a very generous welfare system -Countries where this is implemented include -Sweden -Denmark: a specific example is Denmark’s approach to the labor market; They have a system that allows employers to downsize their workforces. There is also a joint program that works with the employers and government that emphasizes job training that could last a few years. Throughout the training, a trainee receives a salary and benefits, on top of a guaranteed full time job. This program allowed Denmark to lower their unemployment rate to 5%. ***TRANSITION: In comparison to Denmark’s equality-matching culture is the United States’ market-pricing culture. Under the last of Triandis’ 4 generic types of culture is: -Vi, which represents vertical collectivism. -This has a high degree of both power distance and individualism which leads to a market-pricing culture. -America represents this last type because of its low tax structure and greater wealth inequality, in comparison to Scandinavian nations

The challenges of the 4 generic types Four generic types, also known as meta-categories Problems: Fusions Sweden Task of globalization -There are many different types of cultures, but Triandis’ research allowed us to categorize them into 4 generic types, also known as meta-categories -Although not all 4 are strongly depicted, Triandis believes that all cultures can be fitted into each of these categories -There are occasions when fusions occur that mix a society -Sweden: mixture of market-pricing and equality-matching; the country has an egalitarian culture, but also is home to disproportionate number of high performing multinational corporations and entrepreneurial firms known for the quality of their goods and services -With the majority of the world categorized as “authority ranking,” it is apparent that the world faces the task of globalization -Because the orientations differ in many ways, the cultures are often in direct conflict with each other. -For example, an individual with special privileges in market-pricing and authority-ranking cultures resist change because they do not want losses in status, wealth, or power -In most cases, some cultures are embedded as people grow up, so changing orientation can be difficult

2.3: Can collectivists be self-centered and selfish? Individualism: individuals make decisions and pursue courses of actions that benefit them and possible the small number of others, such as the nuclear family they consider important Collectivism: the fact that individual subordinates personal desires when they conflict with the larger group or culture in which activities occur Individualists=Collectivists -Individualism indicates that individuals make decisions and pursue courses of actions that benefit them and possible the small number of others, such as the nuclear family they consider important -Collectivism is defined as the fact that individual subordinates personal desires when they conflict with the larger group or culture in which activities occur -Definitions allow one to conclude that collectivists are less self-centered and selfish than individualists, however this is not always the case. -Individualists=Collectivists -You can see that collectivists can be just as selfish, if not more, as individualists by examining the Communist part of the Soviet Union. Although they implemented the idea of “to each his own,” many benefitted from disproportionate rewards. Example: Suicide bombers -One gives up his/her life for a group; individualists see this as crazy, but collectivists see it as an act to benefit the entire group

2. 4: Value paradoxes exist in all cultures 2.4: Value paradoxes exist in all cultures. For example, how can a national culture value freedom and dependence simultaneously? A study was done by Marieke de Mooij about cross- cultural paradoxes to show why advertisements were more successful in one nation or a group of nations but not in others The study starts of with value paradox -“statements that seem contradictory but are actually true”

Value Paradoxes Germans value individual freedom but stress that when there's too much freedom then that can lead to disorder (freedom-affiliation paradox). Dutch and Scandinavians cherish individual freedom, but at times feel that relationship needs are much more powerful (freedom-affiliation paradox). French think that individual freedom goes together with dependence on power holders (freedom-dependence paradox).

Individualism vs. a group setting Advertisements targeted toward the group- oriented Japanese tend to focus on one celebrity compared to Americans take notice to more group activities in social settings or at home Mooji feels that value paradoxes reflect the difference between the desired and the desirable in life Since the Japanese are so group oriented they feel that the group rubs off to much on them and they prefer to be more individualistic compared to Americans who feel isolated and alone at times and find comfort within groups

Understanding value paradoxes Culture is so complex because value paradoxes are so important Understanding the value paradoxes in culture enhances our understanding of it Values are perceived so differently in every culture that’s why it makes it so difficult to understand the relationship between cultural values and cultural practices

2.5: How are cultural values and cultural practices related? Cultural values are consistently and negatively associated with cultural practices. Cultural practices are the way things are (practices and the actual operations of institutions). Ex: the law, religious systems, and the education system Cultural Values are different. They are the ways things should be. Ex: power-distance, humane orientation, and uncertainty avoidance

Influence of cultural values on cultural practices Religion in the hospitals conflicting with abortion In Scandinavia, although egalitarian, often distributes fines according to total income. Ex: speeding ticket Strong evidence supporting that practices can influence value over time Ex: Equal employment opportunity which has positively affected women, racial and ethnic minorities, and older workers.

Power Distance Power distance is important when analyzing the negative correlation between values and practices Power distance is the degree to which a culture accepts wide differences in authority, power differences, and status privileges. Ex: Sweden is an equality matching nation and they often follow this pattern ( repatriate story – consensus based mgmt) Power distance is measured as one of the biggest gaps Hard to globalize; “everybody fit” Ex: $3 Million Scenario; only yes, no and why In sum, relationship between values and practices is significantly negative., and the gap wide, especially with power distance.

2.6: Does Culture Matter? Where do our values come from? Hofstede’s Study Points of Crisis

2.7: Are demographics more important than culture? Demographic groups vs. Cultural groups Which has more groups? Why? When is culture more important?

2.8: Should we advocate only one perspective on culture? Two approaches to cross-cultural studies Etic (culture-general) Emic (culture-specific) Etic Based on dimensions such as power distance and individualism-collectivism Questionnaire survey Emic “Thick” description of culture Emphasises distinctive and unique features

Should we advocate only one perspective on culture? cont. Three specific approaches to study of culture developed: Cross-cultural comparison Etic approach Stresses the rating and rankings of cultures through use of survey 2. Intercultural interaction Emic approach Reality is socially constructed Each culture distinctive with unique values

Should we advocate only one perspective on culture? cont. Multiple cultures perspective Profiles contrasting perspectives of cultures and what happens when interactions occur Uses both etic and emic approaches Example: BrainLAB company Less than 10% of the 220 national cultures in the World are monocultural Imperative to analyze ethnic, religious, and geographical aspects of each national culture

Should we advocate only one perspective on culture? cont. Researches tend to analyze cultures with an approach they are most comfortable with Cross-cultural differences and globalization Understanding etic and emic differences is crucial in business and non business activities

Perceiving Culture

2.9: Do proper introductions and greetings simultaneously require kissing, bowing, and shaking hands? The book “Kiss, Bow, or Shake Hands” features the four generic types of cultures Community sharing Authority ranking Equality matching Market pricing

Do proper introductions and greetings simultaneously require kissing, bowing, and shaking hands? cont. Community sharing = Kissing and/or hugging Authority ranking = Bowing Equality matching and market pricing = Shaking hands

How do people in these countries greet one another? Japan U.S. Sweden

Answer to Paradox 2.9 Do proper introductions and greetings simultaneously require kissing, bowing, and shaking hands? Answer: Sometimes all three are very acceptable, depending on the degree of cultural sophistication of those interacting with one another.

2.10: Are cultural stereotypes valid? Definition: a stereotype represents a distorted view or mental picture of groups and their supposed characteristics

Examples of Cultural Stereotypes Sweden China U.S

Answer to Paradox 2.10 Everyone stereotypes, and sometimes they are valid However, always try to move beyond stereotyping to obtain a better understanding of the culture

2.11: Are the distinctions between levels of culture relevant in a globalizing world? Different levels of culture Deepest level Norms and values Superficial level Ways of acting and dressing

Are the distinctions between levels of culture relevant in a globalizing world? cont. Fortune Magazine- Superficial Level MTV example- Deepest Level Level of culture will matter, but deepest level will become more transparent

2.12: Do insiders understand their own cultures better than outsiders do? Depth of understanding Outsiders Objective Detached

Do insiders understand their own cultures better than outsiders do Do insiders understand their own cultures better than outsiders do? cont. The author believe both, insiders and outsiders, have great point of views. Differential understanding Reinforce

2.13: Can global citizenship and the effects of root cultures exist simultaneously? The first six years of life are known to determine our personalities and the manner in which we interact with one another. According to Sigmund Freud More and more people today have lived at least 3 months or more in their nonnative culture. The book refers to these people as citizens of the world.

Transpatriates & Expatriates Also known as “global nomads” which is business professionals frequently or constantly traveling the globe in search of business opportunities. Expatriates-an individual sent by a business firm to work abroad for a relatively short time, such as 1-5 years. Today multinational corporations expect that managers will live in several years outside their native cultures.

Can culture change quickly? Do you think culture can change slowly or quickly? The book references China’s cultural change from 1988-1999.

China Visible & invisible aspects of culture Visible changes have dramatically changed Invisible changes are more difficult to point out China is becoming a consumer oriented society, which is emphasizing on education and hard work. China is changing from old to new.

Robert Putman (1993) Southern Italy 12th century Sicily was conquered by Fredrick, a German who became the first king. Established a fair and equitable system of governance. After his death his successor subverted it to create a corrupt and harsh environment. Putman demonstrates that cultural patterns, set in motion by King Fredrick’s successors, exists in southern Italy today.

Northern Italy Guilds arose in the 14th Century emphasizing on education and training workers in specific needs. Introduced free and relatively clean elections, while implementing a fair and equitable court and police system. Today citizen involvement in local activities and elections is crucial to the success of Northern Italy.

Cultural change It is possible to change the basic values of a culture through: Mass immigrations, business, and non-business activities linking cultures, and cross-cultural marriages