Parallel LC Resonant Circuit Consider the following parallel LC circuit: –Treating as a voltage divider, we have: –Calculate the (complex) impedance Z LC : R C V in V out L (Student Manual for The Art of Electronics, Hayes and Horowitz, 2 nd Ed.) (Lab 3–1)

Parallel LC Resonant Circuit Thus we have: –Note that for (resonant frequency): –Otherwise is small (Remember that  = 2  f  )

Parallel LC Resonant Circuit Overall response (V out / V in vs. frequency ) : –This circuit is sometimes called a tank circuit –Most often used to select one desired frequency from a signal containing many different frequencies Used in radio tuning circuits Tuning knob is usually a variable capacitor in a parallel LC circuit (The Art of Electronics, Horowitz and Hill, 2 nd Ed.) Q = quality factor = f 0 /  f 3dB = resonance frequency / width at –3 dB points (Remember that at –3 dB point, V out / V in = 0.7 and output power is reduced by ½ ) Q is a measure of the sharpness of the peak For a parallel RLC circuit:

Oscillation in Parallel LC Resonant Circuit (Introductory Electronics, Simpson, 2 nd Ed.)

Oscillation in Parallel LC Resonant Circuit For a pure LC circuit (no resistance), the current and voltage are exactly sinusoidal, constant in amplitude, and have angular frequency –Can prove with Kirchhoff’s loop rule –Analogous to mass oscillating on a spring with no friction For an RLC circuit (parallel or series), the current and voltage will oscillate (“ring”) with an exponentially decreasing amplitude –Due to resistance in circuit –Analogous to damped oscillations of a mass on a spring (Introductory Electronics, Simpson, 2 nd Ed.) (Lab 3–1)

Series LC Resonant Circuit Consider the following series LC circuit: –Now Z LC = Z C + Z L = j  L – j /  C (L and C in series ) Overall response: (The Art of Electronics, Horowitz and Hill, 2 nd Ed.) For series RLC circuit: (HW #1.26)

Fourier Analysis In Lab 3–1, a parallel LC resonant circuit is used as a Fourier Analyzer –The circuit “picks out” the Fourier components of the input (square) waveform Fourier analysis: Any function can be written as the sum of sine and cosine functions of different frequencies and amplitudes –We can apply this technique to periodic voltage waveforms: –Where T = minimum time voltage waveform repeats itself and 1 / T = fundamental frequency = f 0 –Could instead substitute  T (Lab 3–1)

Fourier Analysis The a n and b m constants are determined from: For a symmetric square wave voltage (assuming V(t) is an odd function): – a n = 0 n = 0, 1, 2, 3, … –

Fourier Analysis Thus for a square wave of fundamental frequency  0 : –When we apply an input square wave voltage of frequency  0  to the parallel LC circuit, we are in essence applying frequencies      , etc. simultaneously with relative amplitudes 1, 1/3, 1/5, etc. (respectively) –The LC circuit is a “detector” of its resonance frequency f 0, including contributions from the harmonics of the input fundamental frequency “Mini-resonance” peaks will occur in the output voltage at driving frequencies of f 0 / 3, f 0 / 5, etc. (Student Manual for The Art of Electronics, Hayes and Horowitz, 2 nd Ed.)

Diodes Diodes are semiconductor devices that are made when p– type and n–type semiconductors are joined together to form a p–n junction –With no external voltage applied, there is some electron flow from the n side to the p side (and similar for holes), but equilibrium is established and there is no net current (Introductory Electronics, Simpson, 2 nd Ed.)

Diodes With a reverse bias external voltage applied, there is only a small net flow of electrons from the p side to the n side, and hence a small positive current from the n to the p side (Introductory Electronics, Simpson, 2 nd Ed.)

Diodes With a forward bias external voltage applied, electrons are “pushed” in the direction they would tend to move anyway, and hence there is a large positive current from the p side to the n side (Introductory Electronics, Simpson, 2 nd Ed.)

Diodes Thus diodes pass current in one direction, but not the other The diode’s arrow on a circuit diagram points in the direction of current flow When diodes are forward- biased and conduct current, there is an associated voltage drop of about 0.6 V across the diode (for Si diodes) – “diode drop” (Student Manual for The Art of Electronics, Hayes and Horowitz, 2 nd Ed.) Current can flow Current can’t flow X

Diodes in Voltage Divider Circuits Consider diodes as part of the following voltage- divider circuits: (1) This diode circuit is called a rectifier (specifically, a half-wave rectifier) V in V out (Lab 3–2)

Diodes in Voltage Divider Circuits (2) This circuit is called a diode clamp circuit because the output voltage is “clamped” at about –0.6 V V in V out (Lab 3–6)

Diodes in Voltage Divider Circuits (3) This is another clamp circuit: the output voltage is clamped at about +5.6 V and –0.6 V V in V out (Lab 3–6)

Diode Applications Rectification: conversion of AC to DC voltage –We already saw how this could be done with a half-wave rectifier –A much better way is with a full-wave bridge rectifier: –Two diodes are always in series with the input (so there will always be 2 forward diode drops) –Gap at 0 V occurs because of diodes’ forward voltage drop (The Art of Electronics, Horowitz and Hill, 2 nd Ed.) (Lab 3–3)

Diode Applications Although more efficient than the half-wave rectifier, the bridge rectifier still produces a lot of “ripple” (periodic variations in the output voltage) –The ripple can be reduced by attaching a low-pass filter: –The resistor R is actually unnecessary and is always omitted since the diodes prevent flow of current back out of the capacitors – C is chosen to ensure that R load C >> 1 / f ripple so the time constant for discharge >> time between recharging (The Art of Electronics, Horowitz and Hill, 2 nd Ed.) (Lab 3–4)

Diode Applications We have almost finished building our own DC power supply! For further power supply design details, see Class 3 Worked Example in the Lab Manual (p. 71–74) (Student Manual for The Art of Electronics, Hayes and Horowitz, 2 nd Ed.)

Diode Applications Signal rectifier –Eliminates an unwanted polarity of a waveform –Example: Remove sharp negative spikes from the output of a differentiator –An RC differentiator is used to generate the spikes, and a diode is used to rectify the spikes: (The Art of Electronics, Horowitz and Hill, 2 nd Ed.) (Lab 3–5)

Diode Applications Voltage limiter –In the circuit below, the output voltage is limited to the range –0.6 V  V out  +0.6 V –This is just another example of a diode clamp circuit –Useful as an input protection circuit for a high-gain amplifier (otherwise amplifier may “saturate”) (The Art of Electronics, Horowitz and Hill, 2 nd Ed.) (Lab 3–7)

Example Problem: Chap. 1 AE 7 Sketch the output for the circuit shown at right. (Solution details will be discussed in class.)