Adaptations Introduce the session - today we are going to look at how animals are adapted to move in different environments. We will talk about: Why animals need to move. The different adaptations animals have to moving on land, through trees, through water and in air. 1

What is Adaptation? “...the way in which a species becomes better suited to living in its environment.” structures, characteristics, and behaviors that increase an organisms’ chance of surviving and reproducing in an environment. Ask the class: Can you define the word “adaptation”? Animals and plants are adapted in many ways to their environment. Adaptations allow them to live successfully in their habitat, for example they need specific adaptations to be able to feed, communicate, keep warm or cold, and of course to move. This is what we will focus on in this session. 2

Structural adaptations are physical characteristics that help the organism survive (keep warm or cold, feed, communicate, move, etc.). Ex: Thick layer of blubber of a polar bear is used to keep it warm in the artic temperatures Ask the class: Can you define the word “adaptation”? Animals and plants are adapted in many ways to their environment. Adaptations allow them to live successfully in their habitat, for example they need specific adaptations to be able to feed, communicate, keep warm or cold, and of course to move. This is what we will focus on in this session. 3

Leopard seal – aquatic specialist Movement Many methods: running, flying, swimming, etc. Different habitats present different problems to movement that need to be overcome Specialists vs. Generalists Leopard seal – aquatic specialist There are many different methods of movement e.g. running, crawling, flying, swimming etc. Different habitats present different problems to movement e.g. air friction, forest (navigating through trees), uneven ground surfaces, ice. Some species are highly specialised and are adapted to moving in only one type of habitat. e.g. leopard seals – great swimmers and which enables them to be ferocious hunters in the water, but when they are on land they are rather cumbersome. Other species are generalists, being adapted to move in a number of habitats e.g. otter can move efficiently on land as well as in water. 4 Good in water... ...cumbersome on land

Why move? American pika collecting food Common warthog fleeing from cheetah Why do animals need to move? There are various reasons why animals need to move in order to survive - Discuss this with the class before revealing some of the possible answers. To find food (the distance travelled will be determined by food preference and abundance) To escape from predators (this can be in the form of a direct flight response seen here in the warthog, or such as the broken wing display seen in plovers, where adults create a distraction by appearing to be injured in order to draw predators away from their nest/eggs/young) To disperse to new areas (to prevent competition between related individuals for limited resources – food, mates etc) To find a mate (maintain genetic diversity by mating with unrelated individuals) 5 Grass snake hatchlings dispersing Radiated tortoises mating

Adaptations to moving on land Movement on Land Adaptations to moving on land Things to think about: Speed vs. agility (mode of feeding dictates movement) : Move to catch prey or to escape predators Land may be open or have obstacles such as trees Moving over different substrates e.g. sand, snow, mud (What does it feel like when you run in sand?) Firstly, we will look at some examples of how animals are adapted to movement on land. There are numerous land habitats that land animals need to be adapted to move through, all of which may present different problems to movement. Things to consider when moving on land: The mode of feeding dictates how you will move on land. Either need to be fast to catch prey, or have special adaptations in order to escape, such as being able to leap, climb trees or just outrun a predator. When the land is open (no obstructions) speed is an important adaptation. Agility is more important when avoiding obstructions such as trees. Different substrates may also pose problems to movement on land. For example, if you’ve ever tried to run in sand its quite hard work, so species that live in deserts need to have adaptations to make moving more energy efficient, such as large feet to stop you sinking in the sand (for example the camel has wide feet that spread out over sand) For the following four examples, you can ask the class to come up and annotate the pictures or just make suggestions as to how they may be adapted to their particular habitat type. 6

Snow Leopard Meter long tail used for balance when walking across rocky cliffs Short fore limbs and long hind limbs for agility in steep rugged habitat. Firstly, we will look at some examples of how animals are adapted to movement on land. There are numerous land habitats that land animals need to be adapted to move through, all of which may present different problems to movement. Things to consider when moving on land: The mode of feeding dictates how you will move on land. Either need to be fast to catch prey, or have special adaptations in order to escape, such as being able to leap, climb trees or just outrun a predator. When the land is open (no obstructions) speed is an important adaptation. Agility is more important when avoiding obstructions such as trees. Different substrates may also pose problems to movement on land. For example, if you’ve ever tried to run in sand its quite hard work, so species that live in deserts need to have adaptations to make moving more energy efficient, such as large feet to stop you sinking in the sand (for example the camel has wide feet that spread out over sand) For the following four examples, you can ask the class to come up and annotate the pictures or just make suggestions as to how they may be adapted to their particular habitat type. 7

Adaptations for living in trees Arboreal Movement Adaptations for living in trees Things to think about: Forested areas may not be continuous Moving from one tree to another :swinging, jumping, gliding Balance and grip (falling could be fatal) Arboreal movement means movement through trees. Movement in the trees poses a different set of problems to movement across open land. Things to consider: Forested areas may not be continuous: may need to move along the ground as well as through trees, and also may need specific adaptations to ascend and descend trees There are different ways of moving between trees, for example jumping (grey squirrels), swinging (orangutans), gliding (sugar glider) Balance and grip – due to the nature of moving through trees, species are often high up and a fall could be potentially fatal, therefore adaptations to grip onto branches and improve balance are very important.

Sugar glider Adapted to moving between trees: Sugar glider Bridging the gap – some species have developed adaptations to move between trees. The sugar glider uses the membrane along its body (known as a ‘patagium’ ) to glide between trees, and can cover distances of up to 50 metres. It is very agile in the air, using its tail to help control the direction of the glide. It swoops upwards at the last moment to land on the next tree with precision, using its large claws to cling on. Its feet are hand-like, able to grasp branches, aided by an opposable toe on its hindfoot. Its tail is prehensile which means it is capable of grasping onto branches as well as helping with the steering when in the air. Patagium (flaps on side of body) allow it to glide up to 50 meters Tail used to control direction when gliding, grasp tree when sitting Feet are hand-like to grasp branches 9

Adaptations to aquatic movement Things to think about: Friction – causing drag Buoyancy – saline (salt) vs. freshwater Currents and tides Now, lets take a look at some species adapted to movement through the water. Locomotion in water can be quite difficult as it is much more viscous than air. If you’ve ever tried to run through water you’ll know how difficult it can be - this is because we’re not very well adapted to life in water. Things to consider when moving through water: Friction can cause drag and make movement through water inefficient. Species need specific adaptations to deal with this, for example a streamlined body shape. Buoyancy is also a consideration when moving in an aquatic environment, and specific adaptations are needed to control a species position in the water column. Also, things are naturally more buoyant in salt water than they are in freshwater, animals that live in both (for example the Atlantic salmon) need adaptations to overcome the change in buoyancy. Currents and tides can cause problems and make movement more difficult, particularly when travelling against them. 10

Great white shark Streamlined body to reduce drag Adapted to moving through water: Great white shark Very streamlined body shape to reduce drag when swimming through the water and increase its speed. Its fins operate much like the wings of an aeroplane, so as the shark propels itself forward with its tail, the fins create ‘lift’. Great white sharks, unlike most other fish, are able to maintain their body temperature higher than that of the surrounding water using a heat exchange system in their blood vessels. This means it can show great bursts of speed to attack prey and leap out of the water (cold-blooded animals would not be able to do this). Unlike bony fish which control their buoyancy with a gas filled swim bladder, sharks have an extremely buoyant substance in their livers, known as squalene which keep them in the right position within the water column. Streamlined body to reduce drag Fins and tail used to propel/direct itself through water No swim bladder, liver contains squalene which maintains constant buoyancy 11

Spotted handfish Two different methods of moving through water Adapted to moving through water and along the seabed: Spotted handfish The spotted handfish is one of the world's most endangered marine fish. It has an unusual adaptation to movement underwater: as well as being able to swim, it can also use its has hand-like 'paired fins' to 'walk' along the sea floor! This video shows the spotted handfish walking along the sea bed: http://www.arkive.org/spotted-handfish/brachionichthys- hirsutus/video-06a.html Two different methods of moving through water a. fins for swimming or walking along sea floor Color allows it to blend into surroundings 12

Adaptations to aerial movement Things to think about: Overcoming friction Use of air currents Hot air vs. cold air Finally, lets take a look at movement through the air Movement in the air has evolved in many different animal groups, including birds, insects and mammals. There are many different adaptations to solve the various problems of aerial locomotion. Things to consider: As with most forms of locomotion, friction can be a problem and species have specific adaptations to deal with air friction. Air currents can be a problem, some species are better adapted to move in turbulent air than others. Some species may possess specific adaptations to move in air of different temperatures e.g. to make use of rising warm air currents or thermals. 13

Peregrine falcon Fastest flying bird 155 miles/hour Adapted to moving through air: Common swift and peregrine falcon. Common swift: A flight specialist, spending up to nine months aloft outside the breeding season. Its tail is deeply forked and its sickle-shaped, sharply-pointed wings are narrow but long, enabling it to make rapid, sharp turns in the air whilst hunting flying insects. The common swift performs most activities in the air, including feeding, preening, playing, sleeping and mating and, in fact, it only lands to feed its young or roost. Its wings are so narrow that they find it difficult to take off from a flat surface, and prefer to drop from a perch. Peregrine falcon: It is the fastest species in the world, travelling up to 155 miles per hour when diving after prey. It has a teardrop shaped body which makes it very aerodynamic, reducing the amount of friction when in flight. It even has specially adapted nostrils with baffles (small, protuding cones inside). The baffles slow down the air flow into its lungs which would otherwise cause its lungs to explode when flying at very high speeds (a design we’ve copied for jet engines). Fastest flying bird 155 miles/hour Tear drop body shape makes it aerodynamic Nostrils with baffles (small cones) that slow down air entering lungs so they do not explode 14

California condor Adapted for gliding using 3 meter wingspan, Adapted to moving through air: California condor This is a species that is adapted to make use of thermals, with its broad wings (catching updrafts) and slotted feathers (these allow air to flow through the wing slots at faster speeds, resulting in less wind resistance and less pressure from above, giving the bird more lift). With an impressive wingspan of just less than three metres, it can go for miles without a single flap of their wings once at a moderate elevation. It has difficulty taking off from the ground, so prefers to roost on high perches from which it can launch without any major wing- flapping effort. Although it is perfectly adapted to this mode of life, these adaptations mean it is not very agile and wouldn’t fare so well in a forested area. Adapted for gliding using 3 meter wingspan, can go miles on a single flap 15

Behavioral adaptations are actions that are used by an organisms to help it survive. Ex: Birds migrating south during the winter Why? When fall turns to winter, temperature dips, food sources become scarce Birds move to locations where there is a constant food supply and nesting opportunities. Adapted to moving through air: California condor This is a species that is adapted to make use of thermals, with its broad wings (catching updrafts) and slotted feathers (these allow air to flow through the wing slots at faster speeds, resulting in less wind resistance and less pressure from above, giving the bird more lift). With an impressive wingspan of just less than three metres, it can go for miles without a single flap of their wings once at a moderate elevation. It has difficulty taking off from the ground, so prefers to roost on high perches from which it can launch without any major wing- flapping effort. Although it is perfectly adapted to this mode of life, these adaptations mean it is not very agile and wouldn’t fare so well in a forested area. 16

Sea otters wind themselves up in the tops of kelp. Young otters must learn this behavior from older otters. Why? Prevents them from being swept away from their ecosystem by the tide. Adapted to moving through air: California condor This is a species that is adapted to make use of thermals, with its broad wings (catching updrafts) and slotted feathers (these allow air to flow through the wing slots at faster speeds, resulting in less wind resistance and less pressure from above, giving the bird more lift). With an impressive wingspan of just less than three metres, it can go for miles without a single flap of their wings once at a moderate elevation. It has difficulty taking off from the ground, so prefers to roost on high perches from which it can launch without any major wing- flapping effort. Although it is perfectly adapted to this mode of life, these adaptations mean it is not very agile and wouldn’t fare so well in a forested area. 17

Bear Hibernating Why? When fall turns to winter, temperature dips, food sources become scarce What occurs? heartbeat drops from 55 beats/min to 10 beats/min body temperature drops 5-9 degrees below normal While in hibernation the bear uses stored energy it accumulated as fat to survive.  A bear can lose 15 to 40 percent of its body weight during the winter just by sleeping! Adapted to moving through air: California condor This is a species that is adapted to make use of thermals, with its broad wings (catching updrafts) and slotted feathers (these allow air to flow through the wing slots at faster speeds, resulting in less wind resistance and less pressure from above, giving the bird more lift). With an impressive wingspan of just less than three metres, it can go for miles without a single flap of their wings once at a moderate elevation. It has difficulty taking off from the ground, so prefers to roost on high perches from which it can launch without any major wing- flapping effort. Although it is perfectly adapted to this mode of life, these adaptations mean it is not very agile and wouldn’t fare so well in a forested area. 18

Cheetah Open plains specialist Adapted for speed Animal adapted to the open plains of the African savannah: Cheetah The cheetah is an open plains specialist, and is adapted for speed: it is the fastest land mammal in the world, reaching speeds of up to 65 miles per hour (87 kilometres per hour). Its adaptations wouldn’t serve it well in a forested habitat or one with many obstacles. Unlike other cats, the cheetah’s claws are not fully retractable, and the pads are ridged to provide additional grip on the ground during a hunting sprint. The large nostrils allow greater amounts of air to enter the lungs when running. The tail is particularly long to provide extra balance when cornering. Its lean frame supports long, muscular limbs. It has a deep chest cavity with large lungs allowing more oxygen to reach its muscles It also has an extremely flexible spine allowing it to make long strides.

Spanish ibex Rocky habitat specialist Adapted for agility 20 Animal adapted to cliffs and rocky habitats: Spanish ibex The Spanish ibex is a highly adapted goat with large, flexible hooves (to grip into crevices) and short legs (low centre of gravity) to help it run and leap across the exposed, steep slopes of its mountainous habitat. It is a very agile and hardy species, able to skillfully climb across bare rock and survive on sparse vegetation. This gives it an advantage over potential predators that are not adapted to this terrain, allowing them to escape. Rocky habitat specialist Adapted for agility 20

Polar bear Habitat generalist – can move over land and in water Animal adapted to polar habitats: Polar bear Large paws help to spread weight out on snow and stop them sinking. Non-retractable claws dig into the snow like ice-picks. Soles of their feet have small projections and indents which act like suction cups and help the bear to walk on ice without slipping. Also a generalist, so large strong limbs and huge forepaws are used as paddles, allowing it to move in water as well as it can move on land. Habitat generalist – can move over land and in water Adapted to polar habitat 21

Legless movement Movement without limbs Adapted to overcome friction Of course you don’t have to have legs to be able to move on land: The sidewinder uses a very efficient method to move through sand. Snakes usually use the wave-like motion of the scales to move along, but sand offers very little resistance to push against. However, the sidewinder moves by sidewinding, where raised loops of its body are thrown from side to side to push itself forward in an “S”-shaped curve. This distinctive movement enables the snake to have the least amount of body-surface-area in contact with the hot sand at any one time. It also improves the snakes grip on the sand, making movement more efficient. A video of the sidewinder moving through its habitat can be seen here: http://www.arkive.org/sidewinder/crotalus-cerastes/video-00.html Leopard slug uses mucus trails to reduce the amount of friction with the ground. 22 Sidewinder Leopard slug

Fossa Habitat generalist – can move quickly through trees as well as The fossa is a rather unusual example of an animal adapted to life in forests, as it is well adapted to move in trees and on the ground – it is a generalist. The fossa is the largest carnivore in Madagascar, and although it looks like a cat it is actually a type of civet. It has short retractable claws which enable efficient tree climbing, and its long tail aids balance when climbing. It has highly flexible ankle joints that allow it to rotate its feet and climb up and down vertical tree trunks. The fossa is also able to walk on the ground between trees, and unlike other members of the Viverridae (civet) family, the fossa walks on the soles of its feet rather than its toes; a method of locomotion known as 'plantigrade‘. Video of fossa climbing and jumping between trees: http://www.arkive.org/fossa/cryptoprocta-ferox/video-06.html Habitat generalist – can move quickly through trees as well as on the ground Adapted to jump between branches 23

White-handed gibbon Master of agility Adapted to moving between trees: White-handed gibbon Extremely well adapted to moving rapidly through trees. It has long arms and hands and use a method of locomotion known as brachiation, which involves swinging rapidly from one branch to another. Despite lacking a tail, the gibbon has an acute sense of balance and can even walk on its hind legs along branches high above the ground, raising its arms above its head to balance (imagine someone walking along a tightrope with their arms out to balance). Video showing white-handed gibbons moving through the forest canopy: http://www.arkive.org/white-handed-gibbon/hylobates- lar/video-06a.html Master of agility Adapted to swing between branches 24

Which habitat? Rainforest River Desert Polar Ocean Mountains Woodland Bornean orangutan Snow leopard Rainforest River Desert Which habitat? Polar Ocean Mountains Woodland Open grassland Red squirrel Ask the class: Can you work out what each species’ natural habitat is? Answers: Snow leopard  Mountains (steep, rocky terrain) Bornean orangutan  Rainforest Nile crocodile  River Red squirrel  Woodland Additional question: Get the class to name some species that may be found in the remaining habitats. Nile crocodile 25

Wild Journey - You will be given an ‘Adaptations for Movement’ worksheet. - Write in the adaptations that each species has for moving through its natural habitat. Once you have finished the worksheet, you can begin your ‘Wild Journey’ Get into groups of 5 or less Each group will need: 1x Wild Journey board game 5x Species characters - use as your playing pieces on the board 5x Species fact files - explains how your particular species is adapted to moving through its natural habitat 1x Rules sheet - read before beginning the game Introduce the ‘Wild Journey’ activity. Hand out the worksheets. Once worksheets completed, hand out the board game materials.

Species Habitat Natural Least suitable Cheetah African savannah Polar If you land on your natural habitat square: roll the dice again. If you land on your least suitable habitat square: miss a go! Species Habitat Natural Least suitable Cheetah African savannah Polar White-handed gibbon Rainforest Polar bear Sidewinder Desert Rocky cliffs Spanish ibex This should be left up while the students play the game. IMPORTANT NOTE: When you land on your natural habitat square, you get to roll the die again because your species is well-adapted to move through it. In reality, many of the other habitats would not be as suitable for your species to move through, however, for the purpose of this game, we have designated one habitat that your species is least suitable for and if you land on it, you miss your next go.

How are they adapted to move in their habitat? Bornean orangutan Snow leopard How are they adapted to move in their habitat? Red squirrel Ask the class: How do you think each of these species are adapted to moving through their habitat? Snow leopard - has a long, thick tail, almost a metre in length, which it uses for balance when walking along rocky outcrops and cliffs. Its short forelimbs and long hind limbs enable it to be particularly agile in its steep and rugged habitat. Bornean orangutan - has long, narrow hands and feet which are especially useful for grasping branches. It has very long arms that may reach up to two metres in length, helping it to swing through the trees and hang from branches. It will also sway trees in order to cross larger gaps. Nile crocodile - a surprisingly fast runner on land, though it does tire quickly. An efficient swimmer, it swims using the power of its tail and has webbed hind feet to propel it through the water. Red squirrel - has sharp, curved claws, allowing it to grip onto tree trunks. Its strong hind legs enable it to leap gaps between trees and a long tail helps it to balance. Nile crocodile 28