© Ram Mudambi, Temple University and University of Reading, Lecture 7 Corporate Strategy: Vertical Integration, Diversification, and Strategic Alliances BA 950 Policy Formulation and Administration

© Ram Mudambi, Temple University and University of Reading, Outline  Organizing the firm  Transaction costs analysis  Vertical integration - VI  Types of VI  Creating value through VI  Vertical relationships and outsourcing  Diversification  Related and unrelated diversification  Entering new markets

© Ram Mudambi, Temple University and University of Reading, The Value Chain UpstreamDownstream

© Ram Mudambi, Temple University and University of Reading, The Boundaries of the Firm – 1 Organizational Form Hierarchies ‘Visible Hand’ – Alfred Chandler Markets ‘Invisible Hand’ – Adam Smith ContractsSpot MarketsVertical Integration

© Ram Mudambi, Temple University and University of Reading, Firm Organization – A simple view STAGE 1 Upstream STAGE 2 Downstream Firm 1Market transactions Firm 2 Intra-firm transactions VALUE CHAIN

© Ram Mudambi, Temple University and University of Reading, Stages in the Raw-Material-to-Consumer Value Chain in the Personal Computer Industry End userDistributionAssembly Intermediate manufacturer Raw materials Examples: Dow Chemical Union Carbide Kyocera Examples: Intel Seagate Micron Examples: Apple Compaq Dell Gateway Examples: Computer World Office Max Staples IBM

© Ram Mudambi, Temple University and University of Reading, The Boundaries of the Firm – 2 Spot Markets  When the buyer and seller of an input meet, exchange, and then go their separate ways Contracts  A legal document that creates an extended relationship between a buyer and a seller Vertical Integration  When a firm shuns other suppliers and chooses to produce an input internally

© Ram Mudambi, Temple University and University of Reading, Transaction Costs – 1 The costs of using the market mechanism Coordination costs  Process C & C (inventories, information) Costs based on asymmetric information  Policing costs  Bargaining costs

© Ram Mudambi, Temple University and University of Reading, Transaction Costs – 2 Asymmetric Information Policing costs: Moral hazard & adverse selection  Effort; Quality; Property rights; Restrictive agreements Bargaining costs  Asset specificity and hold-up  New products and processes  Economies of scope

© Ram Mudambi, Temple University and University of Reading, Optimal Firm Organization Substantial specialized investments relative to contracting costs? Spot Exchange No Complex contracting environment relative to costs of integration? Yes Vertical Integration Yes Contract No

© Ram Mudambi, Temple University and University of Reading, Vertical Integration: Forward, backward, full, partial PARTIAL INTEGRATION FULL INTEGRATION

© Ram Mudambi, Temple University and University of Reading, Vertical Integration Greater attraction of VI when  Thin markets; TSAs necessary; Demand uncertainty Difficulty of monitoring/writing contracts  VI  Limited information; Environmental uncertainty Taxes/regulations on market contracts  VI to circumvent taxes/regulations VI difficult when  Scale differential in stages; Strategic dissimilarities in resources/capabilities/success factors

© Ram Mudambi, Temple University and University of Reading, Creating Value Through Vertical Integration Advantages of a vertical integration strategy:  Builds entry barriers to new competitors by denying them inputs and customers.  Facilitates investment in efficiency-enhancing assets that solve internal mutual dependence problems.  Protects product quality through control of input quality and distribution and service of outputs.  Improves internal scheduling (e.g., JIT inventory systems) responses to changes in demand.

© Ram Mudambi, Temple University and University of Reading, Creating Value Through Vertical Integration Disadvantages of vertical integration  Cost disadvantages of internal supply purchasing.  Remaining tied to obsolescent technology.  Aligning input and output capacities with uncertainty in market demand is difficult for integrated companies.

© Ram Mudambi, Temple University and University of Reading, Bureaucratic Costs and the Limits of Vertical Integration The costs of running an organization rise with integration due to:  The lack of an incentive for internal suppliers to reduce their operating costs.  The lack of strategic flexibility in times of changing technology or uncertain demand. Bureaucratic costs reduce the value of vertical integration.

© Ram Mudambi, Temple University and University of Reading, Designing Vertical Relationships Degree of Commitment LowHigh Formal Low High Spot Markets Informal relationships Long Term Contracts Agency Franchises Partnerships Joint ventures VI

© Ram Mudambi, Temple University and University of Reading, Alternatives to Vertical Integration: Cooperative Relationships and Strategic Outsourcing Short-term contracts and competitive bidding  Strong competitors attempt to control supplier costs with minimal-length contracts. Poor treatment of suppliers raises competitor input costs. Strategic alliances and long-term contracting  Long-term contracts foster cooperative relationships.  Alliances reduce the need for vertical integration.

© Ram Mudambi, Temple University and University of Reading, Building Long-Term Cooperative Relationships Hostage taking  Both parties arrange to become mutually dependent on each other, fostering a cooperative relationship.  A believable commitment to support the long-term relationship (a credible commitment). Maintaining market discipline requires:  Periodic renegotiation of the contractual relationship.  Developing a parallel sourcing policy with two suppliers for critical inputs. Discourage opportunism Maintain dynamic efficiency Maintain dynamic efficiency

© Ram Mudambi, Temple University and University of Reading, Hostages – creating trust in one-shot games*  Providing a hostage–  Providing a hostage –  Reduces the incentive for the trustee (hostage-giver) to abuse the trust  Reduces the cost of trust abuse to the trustor (hostage-taker)  Provides a signal of the trustee’s (hostage-giver) quality and intentions  However –  Ugly princess problems, etc. * Raub and Weesie (2000)

© Ram Mudambi, Temple University and University of Reading, Strategic Outsourcing and the Virtual Corporation

© Ram Mudambi, Temple University and University of Reading, Strategic Outsourcing Key to strategic outsourcing  Identifying the company’s basis of competitive advantage and value creation. Outsourcing advantages  Efficient subcontractors reduce overall costs.  Better product differentiation.  Allows for the concentration of available resources.  Firm becomes more flexible and responsive. Outsourcing disadvantages  Failure to learn from outsourced activity.  Too much dependence on a single supplier.  Danger of outsourcing value creation activities leading to competitive advantage.

© Ram Mudambi, Temple University and University of Reading, Stages in transitioning from a single business to a diversified company STAGE 1: Small single-business serving a regional market STAGE 2: Geographic expansion STAGE 3: Vertical integration (optional) STAGE 4: Diversification--usually initiated when growth opportunities dwindle in the company’s present business What next?

© Ram Mudambi, Temple University and University of Reading, Competitive strengths of a single business strategy – 1 Less ambiguity about “who we are” Less ambiguity about “who we are” Energies of firm, resources and capabilities can be directed down one business path and keeping strategy responsive to industry change Energies of firm, resources and capabilities can be directed down one business path and keeping strategy responsive to industry change Less chance resources will be stretched thinly over too many competing activities Less chance resources will be stretched thinly over too many competing activities

© Ram Mudambi, Temple University and University of Reading, Competitive strengths of a single business strategy – 2 Higher probability innovative ideas and important competencies will emerge Higher probability innovative ideas and important competencies will emerge Top executives can maintain hands-on contact with core business Top executives can maintain hands-on contact with core business Ability to parlay experience and reputation into Ability to parlay experience and reputation into  Sustainable competitive advantage  Prominent leadership position

© Ram Mudambi, Temple University and University of Reading, Risks of a single business strategy Putting all the “eggs” in one industry basket  If market becomes unattractive, a firm’s prospects can quickly dim  Unforeseen changes can undermine a single business firm’s prospects  Changing customer needs  Technological innovation  New substitutes

© Ram Mudambi, Temple University and University of Reading, When to diversify? When it makes sense to diversify depends on  Growth potential in present business  Attractiveness of opportunities to transfer existing competencies to new businesses  Potential cost-saving opportunities to be realized by entering related businesses  Availability of adequate financial and organizational resources  Managerial expertise to cope with complexity of operating a multi-business enterprise

© Ram Mudambi, Temple University and University of Reading, Why diversify?  To build shareholder value  Make = 5  Diversification can increase shareholder value if it passes Porter’s three tests: 1.Attractiveness test 2. Cost of entry test 4 Must not capitalize all future profits 3. Better-off test 4 Combined unit must be better than the ones it replaces

© Ram Mudambi, Temple University and University of Reading, Diversification Related diversification  Entry into new business activity based on shared commonalities in the components of the value chains of the firms – good strategic fit  A strategy-driven approach to creating shareholder value Unrelated diversification Unrelated diversification  Entry into a new business area that has no obvious relationship with any area of the existing business.  A finance-driven approach to creating shareholder value

© Ram Mudambi, Temple University and University of Reading, Strategic vs. resource fit BUSINESS 2 BUSINESS 1 Firm’s unique capabilities Strategic fit Resource fit

© Ram Mudambi, Temple University and University of Reading, Strategies for entering new businesses Acquire existing company Start-up new business internally Joint venture with another company

© Ram Mudambi, Temple University and University of Reading, Acquisition  Most popular approach to diversification  Advantages:  Quicker entry into target market  Easier to hurdle certain entry barriers  Technological inexperience  Gaining access to reliable suppliers  Being of a size to match rivals in terms of efficiency and costs  Getting adequate distribution access

© Ram Mudambi, Temple University and University of Reading, Internal startup More attractive when  Incumbents slow in responding to new entry  Less expensive than acquiring an existing firm  Company already has most of needed skills  Additional capacity will not adversely impact supply-demand balance in industry  New start-up does not have to go head-to-head against powerful rivals

© Ram Mudambi, Temple University and University of Reading, Summary  Corporate strategy – an application of Transactions Cost Economics (TCE)  The boundaries of the firm  The make-or-buy decision  The value chain and Vertical integration  Diversification and new market entry