©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Important Definitions Motivation: set of factors that activate, direct, and maintain behavior,

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©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Important Definitions Motivation: set of factors that activate, direct, and maintain behavior, usually toward some goal Emotion: subjective feeling including arousal, cognitions, and expressions

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Theories and Concepts of Motivation

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Theories and Concepts of Motivation: (Major Theories of Motivation) Biological Theories: 1. Instinct--inborn, unlearned behaviors universal to species explain motivation 2. Drive-Reduction--internal tensions “push” toward satisfying basic needs 3. Arousal--motivated toward optimal level of arousal

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Drive-Reduction Theory

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Arousal Theory People seek an optimal level of arousal that maximizes their performance.

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Theories and Concepts of Motivation: (Major Theories of Motivation Cont.) Psychosocial Theories: 1. Incentive--motivation results from the “pull” of external environmental stimuli 2. Cognitive--motivation affected by attributions and expectations

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Biopsychosocial Theory: 1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: interaction of biological, psychological, and social needs; lower motives (physiological and safety) must be met before higher needs (belonging, self-esteem) Theories and Concepts of Motivation: (Major Theories of Motivation Cont.)

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Social Motivation: Why make friends? Evolutionary Psychology: Using Darwinian principles to explain human nature. Being nice, making friends must have offered some fitness advantage for our ancestors Evolution of niceness:  Kin selection: being nice to those with similar genetics

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Kin selection There are a number of examples of what appear to be altruistic behaviors among animals. Most are explainable as examples of kin selection.

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Reciprocity: You scratch my back I’ll scratch yours Non related individuals sometimes engage in reciprocal arrangements, vampire bats share blood, chimps groom for food

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Indirect reciprocity: being nice to the nice Some animals are sensitive to reputation and restrict reciprocal interactions to only those who have a history of playing fair

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) So why are humans friendly to each other? Kin bias Reciprocal arrangements Reputational rewards

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Human Mate Attraction Using an evolutionary approach to explain why we are attracted to certain traits in members of the opposite sex. Operates at level of “gut” attractions, not conscious evaluation Identifies what types of attractions in members of opposite sex would have enhanced reproductive success in our ancestral past. Argues that problems of optimizing reproductive success would have been different for males and females, and thus would have lead to somewhat different reproductive strategies and attractions.

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Thomas Aquinas on Marriage We observe that in those animals, dogs for instance, in which the female herself suffices for the rearing of the offspring, the male and female stay no time together after the sexual act. But in animals in which the female herself does not suffice for the rearing of the offspring, male and female dwell together after the sexual act so long as is necessary for the rearing and training of the offspring. This appears in birds whose young are incapable of their own food after they are hatched…Hence, whereas it is necessary in all animals for the male to stand by the female for such a time as the father’s concurrence is requisite for bringing up the progeny, it is natural for man to be tied to…one woman for a long period…(SCG B3 Q122).

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Challenges to reproductive success: Males vs. Females Advantages of being male:  Cheap sperm: relatively low parental investment cost Disadvantage: low paternity certainty Advantage of being female: High maternity certainty Disadvantage: costly eggs: relatively high parental investment

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Buss: Global study on mate attraction Over 10,000 subjects from over 30 countries across the globe. Female attractions: decrease parental investment by getting good genes and copious resources Male long-term mate attractions: increase paternity certainty, while maximizing reproductive output

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Evolved Male Attractions: Long-term mates – desire for youth

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Evolved Male Attractions: Beauty

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Evolved Male Attractions: Chastity

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Evolved Male Attractions: Long-term mates Summary 1. Youth/Beauty: increase reproductive value in single mate 2. Chastity/youth: increasing paternity certainty in offspring to be resourced

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Evolved female attractions: Long-term mates Age

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Evolved female attractions: long-term mates Financial Prospects

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Evolved Female attractions: Long-term mates Good genes

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Evolved Female attractions: Long-term mates Good genes

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Female evolved attractions: summary 1. Older mate/good financial prospects: status, stability, resources 2. Cues of masculinity: good genes 3. interaction with ovulatory cycle: evidence for cuckoldry strategy?

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Human mate attraction: Long term mates Males: young, beautiful, sexually modest Reproductive value; paternity certainty Females: older, high-status (or potential), robust Good genetics, stable secure source of resources.

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Cross-cultural signally

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Risks of step-parenting. Note: Violent step parents represent less than 1% of step families

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Darwinian strategy to happy marriage For females: Men want paternity certainty, so avoid all jealousy-arousing behavior (don’t even look at other men). Also, take good care of his genes (offspring). For males: Women want resources. All the money is hers. Avoid spending money in any way she dislikes. For both: Both want health (good genes, fertility, etc.) Take care of yourselves. Have some kids – lower divorce rate among couples with kids.

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Motivation and Behavior— Hunger and Eating Biological factors: stomach, biochemistry, the brain Note the size difference in these rats. The rat on the left had the ventromedial area of its hypothalamus destroyed.

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Motivation and Behavior— Hunger and Eating Psychological factors: visual cues, cultural conditioning Obesity is common for Pima Indians in U.S., but not for those living in nearby Mexico with traditional diet.

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Hunger and Eating--Eating Disorders Obesity appears to result from numerous biological and psychosocial factors. Anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa are both characterized by an overwhelming fear of becoming obese and explained by multiple biological and psychosocial factors.

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Hunger and Eating--Eating Disorders

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Motivation and Behavior— Achievement Characteristics of a high need for achievement (nAch): – Prefers moderately difficult tasks – Prefers clear goals with competent feedback – Competitive – Prefers responsibility – Persistent – More accomplished

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Theories and Concepts of Emotion Three Components of Emotion 1. Physiological-- arousal comes from brain (particularly the limbic system) and autonomic nervous system (ANS)

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Physiological Component and the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Three Components of Emotion (Continued) 2. Cognitive--thoughts, values and expectations 3. Behavioral--expressions, gestures, and body positions Theories and Concepts of Emotion

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Theories and Concepts of Emotion Can you identify the social smile versus the genuine, “Duchenne” smile? Real smiles involve muscles around both the eyes and cheeks.

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Theories and Concepts of Emotion-- Four Theories of Emotion James-Lange: emotions occur after arousal Cannon-Bard: arousal and emotion occur simultaneously Facial-Feedback: facial movements elicit arousal and specific emotions Schachter’s Two-Factor: arousal leads to search for label and then emotion occurs

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Theories and Concepts of Emotion: Overview of Four Theories of Emotion

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Can You Explain Why Pleasant Feelings Increase When Teeth Show?

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Facial Feedback Hypothesis: changes in facial expression produce corresponding changes in emotion Laird (1974): attached electrodes to students faces to study facial muscles. Showed them cartoons. Ask subs to contract muscles to form either smile or frown. Those who smiled while seeing cartoons rated them as funnier. Kleinke et al., (1998). Had subjects model either pictures, most either happy or sad. Rated emotions. Happy faces happier. Zajonc (1993). Cool brain hypothesis

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Facial expressions: Universal expressions of emotions Paul Ekman (1970’s) series of cross-cultural studies looking for universals in facial expressions of emotions Based on evolutionary principle that it would have been advantageous for a highly social species to be able to quickly read emotions from faces.

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Universal Facial Expressions Ekman & Friesen (1978) identified six universal facial expressions: joy, fear, anger, sadness, surprise and disgust.

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Lying faces: Can we identify when a face is lying? Ekaman Telling Lies (2001). microexpression: brief, fleeting facial expression of the opposite emotion to what the person is trying to convey 90% of deceivers produce reliable microexpression. 30% of truth-tellers also do. Other cues: depersonalization of speech, departure from typical communication style. Ekman’s advice: always play good cop Avner Less/Adolf Eichmann example.

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) MicroExpression Training Tools (METT) and Subtle Expression Training Tools (SETT) provide self instructional training to improve your ability to recognize facial expressions of emotion. In under an hour, METT will train you to see very brief (1/25th of a second) microexpressions of concealed emotion. SETT teaches you to recognize the subtlest signs of when an emotion is first beginning in another person. *©Paul Ekman 2004

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Schachter two factor theory of emotion Two factors: physiological arousal and cognitive evalution We take note of physio arousal and label arousal with emotional tag appropriate to situation. Is it love or is it gas?

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) What Theory of Emotion is Portrayed in this Figure?

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Happiness: An elusive emotion Why humans aren’t designed to be happy 1. Hedonic treadmill: we quickly adapt to new circumstances requiring ever greater “thrills” to achieve contentment (the more you have the more you want!) 2. Tendency to make upward rather than downward social comparisons 3. Asymmetry of affective experience effect: losing $50 dollars feels worse than finding $50 feels good.

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Happiness: Does money buy happiness? Yes and no: Enough money to establish a health and security, but past that no effect Of greater importance: stability and depth of social relationships – marriage, family, community.

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)

The secret to Happiness: Ancient wisdom Here again, I saw emptiness under the sun: a lonely man without a friend, without a son or brother, toiling endlessly yet never satisfied with his wealth. Two are better than one; they receive a good reward for their toil, because, if one falls, the other can help his companion up again; but alas for the man who falls with no partner to help him up. (Eccles. 4:7-10).

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Critical Thinking about Motivation and Emotion Intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation-- extrinsic rewards may lower interest and motivation.

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Critical Thinking about Motivation and Emotion—Intrinsic Vs. Extrinsic

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Critical Thinking about Motivation and Emotion— The Polygraph Polygraph: measures changes in emotional arousal, which in turn supposedly reflects lying versus truthfulness The Polygraph

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Critical Thinking about Motivation and Emotion- The Polygraph The subject’s response on the GSR does rise in response to the second question. But remember that error rates on the polygraph range from 25% to 75%.

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Critical Thinking about Motivation and Emotion— Emotional Intelligence (EI) Emotional Intelligence (EI): ability to know and manage one’s emotions, empathize, and maintain satisfying relationships

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Culture, Evolution, and Emotion Cultural similarities and differences: 7 to10 culturally universal emotions, but each culture has its own display rules governing how, when, and where to express emotions Role of evolution: strong biological, evolutionary basis for emotional expression and decoding

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Plutchik’s Wheel of Emotions

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Pause and Reflect: Check & Review 1. According to the _____ theory of emotions, we see a bear, our hearts race, and we run for cover. Then we feel afraid. 2. The _____ primarily measures arousal and the physiological component of emotions.

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Psychology in Action (8e) by Karen Huffman PowerPoint  Lecture Notes Presentation End of Chapter 12: Motivation and Emotion Karen Huffman, Palomar College