Islamic republic of iran

Geography Arid plateau around 4000 feet above sea level Bounded by Armenia, Azerbaijan, Caspian Sea, Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Gulf of Oman, Persian Gulf, Turkey and Iraq

King Darius - Zoroastrianism Iranian sovereigns were hereditary military leaders Darius built capital of Persepolis Built intricate system of roads King’s authority supported by strong military as well as state-sponsored religion: Zoroastrianism Zoroastrianism did not survive as major religion but continued to be practiced regularly until 7th century CE.

Shi’ism Between 7th & 16th centuries CE religion held Iran together Numerous invasions by Arabs introduced Islam to the region Even when Iranian caliphate was defeated by Mongols in 13th century the Mongolians converted to Islam Shi’ism established as state religion in 16th century

Shi’ism II Shi’ites – after Muhammad’s death they felt that leadership of the Muslims should be hereditary and pass to Muhammad’s son-in-law, Ali. Sunnis favored choosing a caliph from the accepted Sunni leadership When Ali was killed the Shi’ite opinion became a minority one, but they kept their separate identity True heirs of Islam were the descendants of Ali The heirs (Imams) continued until the 9th century, when the 12th descendant disappeared as a a child, to become known as the “Hidden Imam”

Twelver Shi’ism “Hidden Imams” 12th Imam disappeared as a child in 874 CE, did not die however, will come forward and show himself to establish just rule at the end of times, when injustice and corruption reign supreme (Messiah-like figure) Ulema were willing to give the right to rule to the shahs as long as they ruled justly By end of the 17th century for a shah’s rule to be legitimate he had to have the ulema’s endorsement Ulema ultimately establish themselves as an institution independent of the state, tithes were often paid to the ulema directly giving them both political and economic influence The center of Twelver Shi’ism is the city of Najaf, in Iraq

Safavid Empire (1501-1722) Established Shi’ite identity in Iran By mid-17th century converted 90% of population to Shi’ism Tolerated “People of the Book” – monotheistic religions based on holy books similar to the Qur’an Serious economic problems do to breakup of the Silk Road Had no money for large bureaucracy or standing army Relied on local rulers to maintain order and collect taxes Claimed absolute power but lacked a central state Monarchy became separated from society and lost power by 1722

Qajars (1794-1925) Turkish people that reconquered Iran at end of 18th century Moved capital to Tehran Could not claim to be descendents of Twelve Imams Shi’ite clerical leaders could claim more power as interpreters of Islam, separation between government and religion widened Suffered land loss to European empires of 19th century, sold oil rights to British in the southwest Shah led country into serious debt Iranians upset over shah’s lavish lifestyle look for change that would be initiated by bankers and businessmen

Constitutional Revolution Constitution of 1906 Elections Separation of Powers Laws made by an elected legislature Popular sovereignty Bill of Rights guaranteeing citizen equality, protection of the accused, and freedom of expression Majlis & Guardian Council created Shi’ism becomes official state religion

Pahlavis (1925-1979) By early 1920’s Iran in political and economic disarray Majlis divided by quarreling factions Iran divided into three parts after WWI with Russia and Great Britain each occupying a third of the country Cossack Brigade of the Qajar’s led by Colonel Reza Khan carries out coup d’etat in 1921 and claims himself shah-in-shah in 1925 establishing the Pahlavi dynasty

Pahlavi’s continued Authoritarian rule reestablished in Iran Majlis loses its power Reza Shah passes power to his son, Muhammad Reza Shah in 1941 Democratic experiment of 1906 constitution not forgotten, shah challenged domestically Tudeh Party (communists) National Front (nationalists) Muhammad Mossadeq Mossadeq overthrown by CIA in 1953, Shah reinstated

Pahlavi - OIL & the Rent-seeking state Iran transformed into rent-seeking state under Pahlavi’s because of increasing income from oil Rentier Economy: heavily supported by state expenditure, while the state receives “rents” from other countries Iran received increasing revenue from exporting oil and leasing oil fields to foreign countries Although shah promoted import substitution policies by 1979 oil & associated industries provided 97% of foreign exchange and majority of Iran’s GNP Oil revenue became so great government did not have to rely on internal taxes to generate income, paid expenses from oil profits The people become unnecessary to the government in a rentier state

Pahlavi Influence Centralized State State banks National radio/TV networks National Iranian Oil Company (NOIC) Central Bureaucracy controlled local governments Majlis became “rubber-stamp” legislature Secularization in judicial branch (European-style judicial system) “White Revolution” Armed forces 5th largest in world by 1979 Patronage – shah’s boost personal wealth by seizing property and establishing tax-exempt Pahlavi Foundation that controlled large companies and fed their wealth Muhammad Reza Shah formed Resurgence Party, claimed Iran was one-party state, named himself head

Pahlavi – “White Revolution” “White” to counter influence of “red” communists Land reform – government bought land from large absentee owners and sold it to farmers at affordable prices Encourage agricultural entrepreneurship with irrigation canals, dams, & tractors Women’s rights (secularization) Suffrage Restricting Polygamy Women allowed to work outside the home

Islamic Revolution & the Republic (1979-present) Dominant ideology of Iranian revolution: Religion Leader a cleric (Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini) Theocracy established Fundamental Islam Causes Shah perceived as being totalitarian Balance between secular and religious state ruptured Ties with US and the Western world

Khomeini, Fundamentalism, & Revolution Islamic Fundamentalism Literal interpretation of Islamic texts Social conservatism Political traditionalism Resentment towards elites, US, and the Western world US was the “Great Satan” Velayat-e faqih (jurist’s guardianship) Senior clergy given authority over entire Shi’ia community

Revolution Oil prices decrease about 10% in late 70s Consumer prices in Iran increase about 20% at the same time “Revolution of Rising Expectations” – revolutions occur when people are doing better than they once were and a set back occurs US puts pressure on shat to loosen restrictions on civil society, in particular restraints on political opposition Once restrictions were eased many groups join the revolt (students, teachers, labor groups, oil workers, merchants, and professional associations)

Revolution II 1978 Rallies organized and led by clerics Unarmed demonstrators killed in central square Tehran Oil workers go on strike Anti-regime rallies attract 2 million participants Rallies organized and led by clerics Shah flees the country in February 1979 Khomeini returns to Iran from exile in Paris

Islamic Republic April 1979 referendum held, Iranians officially vote out the shah, Islamic Republic established Assembly of Religious Experts – 73 clerics elected by the people draft a new constitution in 1979 US-Iranian hostage crisis on- going during vote to ratify constitution 99% of electorate vote to endorse constitution although only 75% of eligible voters cast votes

Khomeini & the Islamic Republic Clerics consolidate power Popular support for regime high World oil prices rise again, allowing for social programs, improvements in medicine & housing Iraq invades Iran, people rally around the government Charisma of Khomeini inspired faith in the government Khomeini dies in 1989, constitution amended Ali Khamenei succeeds Khomeini, does not have the same political charisma as the Ayatollah Iran/Iraq war ends in 1988, country war-torn Oil prices drop in 1990’s Population begins to question authoritarian rule of the clerics

Constitution of 1979 Document & 40 Amendments (Some added in 1989) Mixture of theocracy and democracy Preamble reflects importance of religion Velayat-e faqih (Jurist’s guardianship) Gave broad authority to Khomeini and the clerics

Political Cleavages Religion Ethnicity Social Class Reformers vs. Conservatives

Religion 89% of Iranians are Shi’a Muslims 10% are Sunni Muslim The constitution does not mention Sunni’s and their legal status is therefore unknown 1% are combination of Jews, Christians, Zoroastrians, and Baha’i Constitution recognizes rights of religious minorities, many religious minorities have left country since Islamic Revolution Baha’i considered unholy offshoot of Islam and they have been persecuted by Shi’ite governments. Baha’i leaders have been executed, imprisoned, tortured, their schools closed and property confiscated

Ethnicity 51% Persian (speak Farsi) 24% Azeri 8% Gilaki & Mazandarani Live mostly in the northwest close to Azerbaijan, this causes tension with Iranian government worried that Azeri may want to unite part of Iranian territory with Azerbaijan Azeri do not speak Farsi, but they are mostly Shi’ite, Ali Khameini was Azeri 8% Gilaki & Mazandarani 7% Kurds Predominantly Sunni 3% Arabic

Social Class Peasantry and middle class support Islamic regime Benefited from government social programs. Provided electricity & paved roads Middle & Upper-middle class largely secularized Critical of clerics Have not fared well economically under the Republic this reinforces their cultural and political views

Political Culture Authoritarianism (not totalitarianism) – leaders claim to be all powerful, but do not interfere with every aspect of the citizens lives Union of political & religious authority Shi’ism & Sharia – key components of everyday life Escape from European Colonialism Geographic Limitations – limited arable land forced expansion through military conquest, population of Iran unevenly distributed in cities and northwestern part of country Influence of Ancient Persia

Political Culture Shi’ism unifying thread to political culture Multi-faceted political culture: Authoritarianism Union of political and religious authority Shi’ism and shari’a central components No European colonization Geographic limitations Influence of ancient Persia

Protests and Demonstrations College campus active in protests 1999 – gov’t shut down reformist newspaper 2002 – death sentence for reformist academic 2003 – student demonstrations over privatization of university system Today: concerns from workers like high unemployment, low wages, labor laws

Women in Iran Women have better access to education Women often considered wards of their male relatives Today: college students and professionals Islamic Republic policy is “equality-with- difference” Women not well represented in the Majles

Legitimacy of Modern State Revolution of 1979 Legitimacy attached to principles of Shi’ism Constitution of 1979 Amended in 1989

Women & the Political System Treatment of women in Iran is probably more contentious for Westerners than the majority of Iranian women When shari’a law is interpreted narrowly women are considered wards of their male relatives “Equality-with-difference” policy – instituted by the Islamic Republic slants law favorably towards men on issues such as divorce and custody Women must wear scarves and long coats in public Women can not leave country without consent of male relatives Occasionally women stoned for committing adultery Women allowed to get education in Iran and entrance into some occupations Expectations for better jobs and increased political rights among educated women Half of college students in Iran are women Women make up 27% of the labor force