Chapter 6 Thinking & Intelligence

2 of 28 Topics to Explore 1.Problem Solving 2.Thinking Under Uncertainty 3.Intelligence

Part 1 Problem Solving

4 of 28 Types of Problems Thinking: the processing of information to solve problems and make judgments and decisions Well-defined problem: a problem with clear specifications of the start state, goal state, and the processes for reaching the goal state. Ill-defined problem: a problem lacking clear specification of either the start state, goal state, or the processes for reaching the goal state.

5 of 28 Barriers to Problem-Solving Fixation: the inability to create a new interpretation of a problem. Functional fixedness: the inability to see that an object can have a function other than its typical one in solving a problem Mental set: the tendency to use previously successful strategies without considering other strategies that are more appropriate for the current problem

6 of 28 Some Solution Methods Mechanical Solution: Achieved by trial and error or by rote General Solution: States the requirements for success but not in enough detail for further action Solution by Understanding: analyzing the nature of the question in order to find a solution Insight: finding a new way to interpret a problem that immediately yields a solution.

7 of 28 A Problem to Solve See in class!

8 of 28 Solution Strategies Algorithm: a step-by-step problem-solving procedure that guarantees a correct answer to a problem. Heuristic: a strategy that seems reasonable given past experience with similar problems, but does not guarantee a correct answer to a problem. Note: heuristics work much of the time – that is why we use them. The problem is that they do not work 100% of the time – and researchers are ingenuous at finding the times that they don’t work!

9 of 28 Some Interesting Problems See in class!

Part 2 Thinking Under Uncertainty

11 of 28 Judging Probability Representativeness heuristic: a heuristic for judging the probability of membership in a category by how well an object is representative of that category Availability heuristic: a heuristic for judging the probability of an event by how available examples of the event are in memory

12 of 28 Representativeness Heuristic See in class!

13 of 28 Availability Heuristic See in class!

14 of 28 Hypothesis Testing Confirmation bias: the tendency to seek evidence that confirms one’s beliefs, rather than disconfirming evidence Belief perseverance: the tendency to cling to one’s beliefs in the face of contradictory evidence Person-who reasoning: questioning an established research finding because one knows a person who violates the finding

Part 3 Intelligence

16 of 28 Intelligence: Global capacity to act purposefully, think rationally, and deal effectively with the environment Operational Definition: Procedures used to measure a concept Operational Definition of Intelligence: Intelligence is what an intelligence test measures. Defining Intelligence

17 of 28 Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale: Widely used individual intelligence test, derived directly from Alfred Binet’s first intelligence test; items are age-ranked Wechsler Adult Intelligence Test (WAIS): Adult intelligence test that rates verbal and performance intelligence and abilities Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC): Downscaled version of the WAIS-III; for children from 6 years to 16 years, 11 months, 30 days Performance Intelligence: Nonverbal intelligence Verbal Intelligence: Language or symbol-oriented intelligence Intelligence Tests

18 of 28 Sample Items from the WAIS

19 of 28 Sample Items from the WAIS, 2

20 of 28 Sample Items from the WAIS, 3

21 of 28 Scoring Intelligence Tests Intelligence Quotient: Stanford-Binet is scored as a quotient between chronological age and mental age (a child with a mental age of 8 scores at the same level as the average 8 year old: IQ = (mental age/chronological age) x 100 Deviation IQ: Wechsler tests are not actually a quotient, but rather are based on the normal curve and how far a person scores from the center or mean.

22 of 28 Distribution of IQ Scores

23 of 28 A strong correlation (about.50) exists between IQ and school grades. IQ is NOT a good predictor of success in art, music, writing, dramatics, science and leadership. Men and women do NOT appear to differ in overall intelligence. Giftedness: Having a high IQ (usually above 130) or special talents or abilities (playing Mozart at age 5) Facts About IQ

24 of 28 Intelligence: Nature or Nurture?

25 of 28 Language: Used for thinking by lawyers, writers, comedians Logic and Math: Used by scientists, accountants, programmers Visual & Spatial Thinking: Used by engineers, inventors, aviators Music: Used by composers, musicians, music critics Bodily-Kinesthetic Skills: Used by dancers, athletes, surgeons Intrapersonal Skills (Self-Knowledge): Used by poets, actors, ministers Interpersonal Skills (Social Abilities): Used by psychologists, teachers, politicians Naturalistic Skills (Ability to Understand Natural Environment): Used by biologists, organic farmers Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences

26 of 28 Just for Fun: Inductive Reasoning Problem See in class!

27 of 28 Just for Fun: Deductive Reasoning Problem See in class!

28 of 28 A Little Exercise See in class!