Developmental Theories of Learning Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

Outline Overview of Development Overview of Development Piaget’s Stages of Development Piaget’s Stages of Development Case’s Central Conceptual Structures Case’s Central Conceptual Structures Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

Jean Piaget Brilliant Swiss Brilliant Swiss PhD in biology PhD in biology Job administering intelligence tests to children Job administering intelligence tests to children Intrigued by children’s mistakes on test Intrigued by children’s mistakes on test Realized errors were systematic and reflective of the child’s reasoning Realized errors were systematic and reflective of the child’s reasoning Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

Assumptions A small number of mental structures are the basis for thinking in a variety of domains A small number of mental structures are the basis for thinking in a variety of domains Children actively construct mental structures Children actively construct mental structures The nature of mental structures change as children move to a new stage in development The nature of mental structures change as children move to a new stage in development Stage: Thinking and behavior in variety of situations reflect the basic mental structure Stage: Thinking and behavior in variety of situations reflect the basic mental structure Within a stage, the mental structures are in a state of equilibrium Within a stage, the mental structures are in a state of equilibrium Disequilibrium forces children to change their mental structures and enter a new stage of development Disequilibrium forces children to change their mental structures and enter a new stage of development Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

Characteristics of Stages Advancement to a new stage represents a qualitative change in thinking Advancement to a new stage represents a qualitative change in thinking Changes are abrupt Changes are abrupt Progress through stages in culturally invariant sequence Progress through stages in culturally invariant sequence Each stage includes the cognitive structures and abilities of the previous stage Each stage includes the cognitive structures and abilities of the previous stage Children progress through the stages in exact order Children progress through the stages in exact order Individual differences in the rate of passing through through stages Individual differences in the rate of passing through through stages May not reach highest stage May not reach highest stage Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

Piaget’s Stages of Development Age (in years) Key Characteristic Sensorimotor0-2 Thinks via senses Pre-Operational2-7 Can use mental symbols Thinks unidirectionally Egocentric Concrete Operations 7-11 Thinks concretely Reversibility Formal Operations 11+ Thinks abstractly Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

Sensorimotor Stage Sensorimotor: Understand the environment from physical actions Sensorimotor: Understand the environment from physical actions Reflexes become more adaptive as infants learn to apply movements to novel situations Reflexes become more adaptive as infants learn to apply movements to novel situations Behave in goal-directed manner Behave in goal-directed manner A-not-B error A-not-B error Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

Sensorimotor Stage From 0;2(3), Laurent evidences a circular reaction which will become more definite and will constitute the beginning of systematic grasping; he scratches and tries to grasp, lets go, scratches and grasps again, etc. On 0;2(3) and 0;2(6) this can only be observed during feeding. Laurent gently scratches his mother’s bare shoulder. But beginning 0;2(7), the behavior becomes marked in the cradle itself. Laurent scratches the sheet which is folded over the blankets, then grasps it and holds it a moment, then lets it go, scratches it again and recommences without interruption. Quoted from Piaget (1936, as cited in Miller, 2002)

Sensorimotor Stage: Object Permanence Object Permanence: Object exists even when one cannot sense it Object Permanence: Object exists even when one cannot sense it Phase 1: If an object disappears, will not search for it Phase 1: If an object disappears, will not search for it Phase 2: Only search for object if partially hidden or the object is taken while the child was engaged Phase 2: Only search for object if partially hidden or the object is taken while the child was engaged Phase 3: A-not-B Error Phase 3: A-not-B Error Will search for an object in its first hiding spot Will search for an object in its first hiding spot Phase 4: Continue to search for an object until it is found Phase 4: Continue to search for an object until it is found Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

Pre-Operational Stage Children enter the Pre-Operational stage when they acquire Object Permanence Children enter the Pre-Operational stage when they acquire Object Permanence Reflects the ability to mentally represent objects Reflects the ability to mentally represent objects Pre-Operations: Use symbols to represent objects and events Pre-Operations: Use symbols to represent objects and events Egocentrism: Incomplete differentiation of self and the world Egocentrism: Incomplete differentiation of self and the world Difficulty taking another person’s points of view Difficulty taking another person’s points of view “Americans are stupid. If I ask them where the rue du Mont-blanc is, they cannot tell me.” “Americans are stupid. If I ask them where the rue du Mont-blanc is, they cannot tell me.” Unidimensionality: Focus only on one dimension of a problem Unidimensionality: Focus only on one dimension of a problem Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

Pre-Operational Stage Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

Concrete Operational Stage Conservation: Physical properties of an object stay the same despite superficial changes in appearance Conservation: Physical properties of an object stay the same despite superficial changes in appearance Performance on the conservation tasks reflects the presence or absence of mental operations Performance on the conservation tasks reflects the presence or absence of mental operations Mental operation: Internalized mental action on an object or event Mental operation: Internalized mental action on an object or event Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

Concrete Operational Stage Concrete Operations: Perform mental operations on concrete objects Concrete Operations: Perform mental operations on concrete objects Children understand: Children understand: Reversibility: Operations are reversible and the object will keep the same properties despite transformations Reversibility: Operations are reversible and the object will keep the same properties despite transformations If pour the water back into the original glass, there will be the same amount If pour the water back into the original glass, there will be the same amount Class inclusion: One category can be included in another Class inclusion: One category can be included in another Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

Class Inclusion E: What is your nationality? E: What is your nationality? C: I am Swiss C: I am Swiss E: How come? E: How come? C: Because I live in Switzerland C: Because I live in Switzerland E: Are you also Genevan? E: Are you also Genevan? C: No, that is not possible. I am already Swiss, I cannot also be Genevan. C: No, that is not possible. I am already Swiss, I cannot also be Genevan. Quoted from Miller (2002)

Formal Operational Stage Formal operations: Mental operations are not limited to concrete objects but can also be applied to verbal logical statements Formal operations: Mental operations are not limited to concrete objects but can also be applied to verbal logical statements Children can think abstractly Children can think abstractly What would have happened if the British had not colonized Nigeria? What would have happened if the British had not colonized Nigeria? Plan a systematic approach to solving a problem Plan a systematic approach to solving a problem Determine which mixture of five colorless liquids produces a yellow color Determine which mixture of five colorless liquids produces a yellow color Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

Critique of Piaget Characteristics of Stages Characteristics of Stages Each stage is a qualitative change in cognition Each stage is a qualitative change in cognition Catastrophe Theory: Sudden changes in cognition may actually represent a gradual progression Catastrophe Theory: Sudden changes in cognition may actually represent a gradual progression Progress through stages in culturally invariant sequence Progress through stages in culturally invariant sequence Not all cultures reach Formal Operations Not all cultures reach Formal Operations Most adults rarely apply Formal Operations thinking Most adults rarely apply Formal Operations thinking Each stage includes the cognitive structures and abilities of the previous stage Each stage includes the cognitive structures and abilities of the previous stage Egocentrism: Children asked to describe one picture from a group so well that another child can select the described picture (Siegler 1986) Egocentrism: Children asked to describe one picture from a group so well that another child can select the described picture (Siegler 1986) Many Concrete Operations children fail this task Many Concrete Operations children fail this task Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

Catastrophe Theory

Conclusion of Piaget Contributions of Piaget Contributions of Piaget Children think differently than adults Children think differently than adults Focus on children’s cognition Focus on children’s cognition Main research questions: Main research questions: What mental processes cause children to think differently than adults? What mental processes cause children to think differently than adults? How do children represent their environment? How do children represent their environment? Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

Robbie Case Similar to Piaget Similar to Piaget Assumption that children develop in stages Assumption that children develop in stages Develop more sophisticated mental structures in each stage Develop more sophisticated mental structures in each stage Different from Piaget Different from Piaget Case incorporated elements of Information Processing Theory into the stages Case incorporated elements of Information Processing Theory into the stages Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

Robbie Case Advancement to a new stage is the result of increased capacity in working memory Advancement to a new stage is the result of increased capacity in working memory Increased efficiency by automatizing processes Increased efficiency by automatizing processes Brain maturation increases working memory capacity Brain maturation increases working memory capacity Each stage is represented by a different central conceptual structure Each stage is represented by a different central conceptual structure Central Conceptual Structures: Mental network of concepts used to represent and assign meaning to problems Central Conceptual Structures: Mental network of concepts used to represent and assign meaning to problems Apply within culturally defined domains Apply within culturally defined domains Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

Central Conceptual Structure: Numbers From Case (1996) Predimensional Stage

Central Conceptual Structure: Numbers From Case (1996) Unimensional Stage

Item 6 years 8 years 10 years Unidimensional 1 number after Count forward Count backward Overall Bidimensional Four numbers before Which is bigger: 69 or How many in between 7 and Overall Integrated Bidimensional Nine numbers after Which difference is bigger: 9 and 6 or 8 and 3? How much is 36-19? Overall From Okamoto & Case (1996)

Central Conceptual Structures Case’s stages Case’s stages Predimensional: Two independent schemas of quantity Predimensional: Two independent schemas of quantity Non-numerical, Counting Non-numerical, Counting Unidimensional: Merged schemas, but represent on one dimension Unidimensional: Merged schemas, but represent on one dimension Bidimensional: Can compare two mental number lines together Bidimensional: Can compare two mental number lines together Integrated Bidimensional: Generalize relationships to entire number system Integrated Bidimensional: Generalize relationships to entire number system Through development Through development Children consider more elements Children consider more elements Elements become more organized into a structure Elements become more organized into a structure Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

Domains of Thought Numerical: Counting and non-numerical representation Numerical: Counting and non-numerical representation Social: Theories of mind and scripts of the sequence of events Social: Theories of mind and scripts of the sequence of events False belief task False belief task Spatial: Represent a 3D object on paper and represent the relative locations of objects Spatial: Represent a 3D object on paper and represent the relative locations of objects Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

A B C D From Case, Stephenson, Bleiker, & Okamoto (1996)

Implications for Instruction The learning environment should support the stage where the learner is at The learning environment should support the stage where the learner is at Interaction with peers fosters cognitive development Interaction with peers fosters cognitive development Provide a learning situation in which the child experiences disequilibrium Provide a learning situation in which the child experiences disequilibrium Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

Developmental Overview Learning Outcomes: More advanced cognitive structures that assist in thinking and accurately representing the environment Role of the Learner: Actively develop cognitive structures; Experience disequilibrium Role of the Instructor: Ask probing questions to illustrate the inconsistencies in children’s thinking Inputs for Learning: Concrete materials to manipulate; Cognitive conflicts that prompt disequilibrium Process of Learning: Progression through stages of cognitive development Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

Revision Describe Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development. Describe Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development. What teaching modifications should you make for each stage? What teaching modifications should you make for each stage? Describe Case’s four stages of cognitive development. Describe Case’s four stages of cognitive development. What teaching modifications should you make for each stage? What teaching modifications should you make for each stage? Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos