Questionnaires and Interviews Data collection methods: Questionnaires are documents that ask the same questions of all individuals in the sample. Interviews consist of oral questions by the interviewer and oral responses by the research participants. Survey: use questionnaires or interviews to collect data from participants in a sample about their characteristics, experiences, and opinions in order to generalize the findings to a population that the sample is intended to represent.

Advantages of Data Collection Methods Questionnaires Cost of sampling respondents over a wide geographic area is lower Time required to collect data is much less Interviews Adaptability (i.e., Interviewers can follow-up a respondent’s answer to obtain more information Build trust and rapport with respondents, thus making it possible to obtain more information

Issues of Data Collection Methods Questionnaires Commonly used in quantitative research (i.e., Standardized, highly-structured design) Anonymity of respondents Cannot probe respondents’ opinions and feelings Interviews Commonly used in qualitative research Permits open-ended exploration of topics Difficult to standardize the interview situation Cannot provide anonymity for the respondents

Steps in Constructing and Administering a Questionnaire Defining Research Objectives Selecting a Sample Designing the Questionnaire Format (anonymity, item form [closed vs. open-ended]; Likert scale) Pretesting the Questionnaire Precontacting the Sample (letter, postcard, telephone call) Writing a Cover Letter and Distributing the Questionnaire Following Up with Nonrespondents Analyzing Questionnaire Data Defining Research Objectives: (time frame of interest, geographical location, identify groups/subgroups of interest, identify aspect of the topic you want to study, how abstract is your interest)

Defining Research Objectives Important to define your research problem and list the specific objectives to be achieved, or hypotheses to be tested, by the questionnaire. D. A. deVaus (1986): What is the time frame? What is the geographical location of your interest? Are you interested in a broad descriptive study or do you want to specify and compare different subgroups? What aspect of the topic do you want to study? How abstract is your interest? Defining Research Objectives: (time frame of interest, geographical location, identify groups/subgroups of interest, identify aspect of the topic you want to study, how abstract is your interest)

Selecting a Sample Identify the target population from which your sample will be selected Chapter 6 (GBG): sampling techniques Failure to understand and/or have knowledge of the situation will result in making mistakes (e.g., incomplete questionnaires, low response rates, etc.) Identify strategies to select target population (e.g., mailing list, generated reports (MIS), etc.) Quality and accuracy of lists Complete information (name, address, telephone numbers, etc.) Defining Research Objectives: (time frame of interest, geographical location, identify groups/subgroups of interest, identify aspect of the topic you want to study, how abstract is your interest)

Designing the Questionnaire Format Careful construction of the questionnaire is critical and takes time Guidelines for Designing a Questionnaire (Figure 8.1) Anonymity vs. Confidentiality Item-Form (closed vs. open-ended) – advantages and disadvantages Measuring attitudes (Likert scale) Refer to research literature and other instruments Content experts Defining Research Objectives: (time frame of interest, geographical location, identify groups/subgroups of interest, identify aspect of the topic you want to study, how abstract is your interest)

Pretesting the Questionnaire Important to pretest the questionnaire before using it in your study Pretest SHOULD include a sample of individuals from the target population Strategies: Pretest form of the questionnaire should provide space for respondents’ comments/feedback Ask respondents to state in “their own words” what they think each question means (issue of validity and reliability) Questions should be revised and retested again Defining Research Objectives: (time frame of interest, geographical location, identify groups/subgroups of interest, identify aspect of the topic you want to study, how abstract is your interest)

Precontacting the Sample Contacting respondents before sending a questionnaire increases the rate of response Precontact involves: Researcher identifying themselves, discussing the purpose of the study, and requesting cooperation Strategies include: letter, postcard, telephone call, email Precontacts are effective because they alert respondents to the immediate arrival of the questionnaire – reduce the chance that it will be thrown out as junk mail Defining Research Objectives: (time frame of interest, geographical location, identify groups/subgroups of interest, identify aspect of the topic you want to study, how abstract is your interest)

Writing a Cover Letter and Distributing the Questionnaire Objective in doing a questionnaire survey is to achieve a high return rate Cover Letter: Should be brief, convey important information (purpose, participation, outcomes, deadline, etc.) Incentives (certificate, cash, lottery, etc.) Include a stamped, self-addressed envelope Format of Questionnaire (i.e., design and neatness, use of color, etc.) Defining Research Objectives: (time frame of interest, geographical location, identify groups/subgroups of interest, identify aspect of the topic you want to study, how abstract is your interest)

Following Up with Nonrespondents Strategies: Follow-up letter, along with another copy of the questionnaire and another self-addressed stamped envelope; postcard reminders Develop a different cover letter (different approach) Check Nonrespondents Identify nonrespondents (i.e., background characteristics, etc.) - Would results differ if all respondents returned the questionnaire? 20% rule (ability to generalize findings) Solicit nonrespondents (in-person, telephone) Defining Research Objectives: (time frame of interest, geographical location, identify groups/subgroups of interest, identify aspect of the topic you want to study, how abstract is your interest)

Analyzing Questionnaire Data Quantitative Data: Statistical Programs (SPSS, SAS, Excel, etc.) Descriptive statistics, crosstabulations Multivariate analyses Qualitative Data: Text analysis programs Coding and sorting of data Identify themes (develop theory, constructs, etc.) Defining Research Objectives: (time frame of interest, geographical location, identify groups/subgroups of interest, identify aspect of the topic you want to study, how abstract is your interest)

Steps in Preparing and Conducting Research Interviews Defining the Purpose of the Interview Selecting a Sample Designing the Interview Format Developing Questions Selecting and Training Interviewers Pretesting the Interview Conducting the Interviews Analyzing Interview Data Defining Research Objectives: (time frame of interest, geographical location, identify groups/subgroups of interest, identify aspect of the topic you want to study, how abstract is your interest)

Defining the Purpose of the Interview Important to define the purpose of the study Purpose will determine the nature of the interview because different purposes require different levels of structure, types of questions, and interviewer qualifications Types of Research Interviews: Key Informant Interviews: individuals possess special knowledge or perceptions of interest Survey Interviews: confirmation survey, participant construct, projective techniques Group Interviews: focus groups Defining Research Objectives: (time frame of interest, geographical location, identify groups/subgroups of interest, identify aspect of the topic you want to study, how abstract is your interest)

Selecting a Sample A sample of respondents should be selected using one of the quantitative or qualitative sampling techniques (refer to Chapter 6, GBG) Individual vs. focus groups (focus groups vary in size between 7-10 individuals) Rationale of sampling technique employed in research design Examples: Stratified sample Non-random sample of respondents Defining Research Objectives: (time frame of interest, geographical location, identify groups/subgroups of interest, identify aspect of the topic you want to study, how abstract is your interest)

Designing the Interview Format Formats in Quantitative Research Structured interview Semi-structured interview Unstructured interview Formats in Qualitative Research Informational conversational interview General interview guide approach Standardized open-ended interview Telephone Interviewing Defining Research Objectives: (time frame of interest, geographical location, identify groups/subgroups of interest, identify aspect of the topic you want to study, how abstract is your interest)

Developing Questions Depends on the type of interview approach employed Strategies/Issues: Interview guide or protocol Skill and/or ability of interviewer (informal, unstructured, or open-ended) Validity and reliability of questions (open or closed-ended) Test questions prior to administration and/or use Refer to research literature, experts’ input Defining Research Objectives: (time frame of interest, geographical location, identify groups/subgroups of interest, identify aspect of the topic you want to study, how abstract is your interest)

Selecting and Training Interviewers Decide number of interviewers to employ and whether they must have special qualifications Important selection criteria is the interviewer’s ability to relate to respondents positively Match interviewers and respondents on certain characteristics (social class, race, age, gender, etc.) Training Interviewers: Study interview guide/protocol and learn about the interview conditions (e.g., logistics, topics, etc.) Conduct practice interviews and provide feedback Address issues Defining Research Objectives: (time frame of interest, geographical location, identify groups/subgroups of interest, identify aspect of the topic you want to study, how abstract is your interest)

Conducting Interviews Interviewing Tasks Guidelines for Conducting a Research Interview (Figure 8.5) Presentation, rapport, trust, understanding, sensitivity, etc. Recording Interview Data Note taking or tape recording Advantages and disadvantages of method used Defining Research Objectives: (time frame of interest, geographical location, identify groups/subgroups of interest, identify aspect of the topic you want to study, how abstract is your interest)

Analyzing Interview Data Analysis of closed-ended interview questions is straightforward Report percentage (quantify data) Frequency of responses, etc. Analysis of open-ended questions requires development of a category system Transcription of data Analysis of interview data (researcher and objective party) Coding scheme (organization, structure, reliability, etc.) Defining Research Objectives: (time frame of interest, geographical location, identify groups/subgroups of interest, identify aspect of the topic you want to study, how abstract is your interest)