Structure of Language phonemes: basic speech soundsphonemes: basic speech sounds morphemes: smallest unit of language that contains meaningmorphemes: smallest unit of language that contains meaning surface structure: the words and phrases comprising a particular sentencesurface structure: the words and phrases comprising a particular sentence deep structure: the underlying meaning of a sentencedeep structure: the underlying meaning of a sentence

Rules of Language grammar: a system of rules that enable us to speak and understandgrammar: a system of rules that enable us to speak and understand semantics: rules we use to derive meaning from morphemessemantics: rules we use to derive meaning from morphemes syntax: rules we use to order words into sentencessyntax: rules we use to order words into sentences

Mental Imagery An image is a mental representation of a sensory experience.An image is a mental representation of a sensory experience. We use imagery as an aid in conceptualizing and solving problems.We use imagery as an aid in conceptualizing and solving problems. Images allow us to use concrete forms to represent complex and abstract ideas.Images allow us to use concrete forms to represent complex and abstract ideas.

Concepts concept: A mental category for classifying objects, people, or experiences.concept: A mental category for classifying objects, people, or experiences. prototype: A mental model containing the most typical features of a concept.prototype: A mental model containing the most typical features of a concept. idealized cognitive model: Our conceptions of events as we expect to typically find them.idealized cognitive model: Our conceptions of events as we expect to typically find them.

Problem Solving  problem representation: interpreting or defining the problem  select a solution strategy that best suits the problem

Possible Solution Strategies trial and errortrial and error information retrieval: recovery of information from LTM is all that is necessaryinformation retrieval: recovery of information from LTM is all that is necessary algorithm: systematical evaluation of all possible solutions to a problemalgorithm: systematical evaluation of all possible solutions to a problem heuristics: rules of thumb strategies for problem solvingheuristics: rules of thumb strategies for problem solving

Heuristics hill climbing: each step moves progressively toward the final goalhill climbing: each step moves progressively toward the final goal subgoals: creation of intermediate and more manageable goalssubgoals: creation of intermediate and more manageable goals means-end analysis: reducing discrepancy between current and desired statesmeans-end analysis: reducing discrepancy between current and desired states

Heuristics working backwards: moving from the desired state to the current stateworking backwards: moving from the desired state to the current state availability: basing our judgments on the availability of information in our memoriesavailability: basing our judgments on the availability of information in our memories representativeness: judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent particular prototypesrepresentativeness: judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent particular prototypes

Obstacles to Problem Solving an individual’s level of motivationan individual’s level of motivation set: The tendency to perceive and to approach problems in certain ways.set: The tendency to perceive and to approach problems in certain ways. functional fixedness: The tendency to perceive only a limited number of uses for an object.functional fixedness: The tendency to perceive only a limited number of uses for an object.

Obstacles to Problem Solving confirmation bias: The tendency to look for evidence in support of a belief and to ignore evidence that would disprove a belief.confirmation bias: The tendency to look for evidence in support of a belief and to ignore evidence that would disprove a belief.

Improving Problem Solving Ability tacit of elimination: Possible solutions are evaluated according to appropriate criteria and discarded as they fail to provide a solution.tacit of elimination: Possible solutions are evaluated according to appropriate criteria and discarded as they fail to provide a solution. visualization: Concepts are drawn, diagrammed, or charted so that they can be better understood.visualization: Concepts are drawn, diagrammed, or charted so that they can be better understood.