McGraw-Hill © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. The Nature of Research Chapter One

McGraw-Hill © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. The Nature of Research Chapter One

McGraw-Hill © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. What is Educational Research? The ability to answer a question or concern facing many of us in the area of Education. The ability to answer a question or concern facing many of us in the area of Education. Teachers, counselors, administrators, parents, and students continually need to seek information in order to perform their jobs. Teachers, counselors, administrators, parents, and students continually need to seek information in order to perform their jobs.

McGraw-Hill © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. How Does One Obtain Information? People do the following to obtain information: People do the following to obtain information: Consult experts Consult experts Review books and articles Review books and articles Question/observe colleagues Question/observe colleagues Rely on past experience Rely on past experience Use intuition Use intuition Using scientific research provides another way to obtain information Using scientific research provides another way to obtain information Information is reliable and accurate Information is reliable and accurate Allows an understanding of why research is valuable Allows an understanding of why research is valuable

McGraw-Hill © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Ways of Knowing That Things Exist Sensory Experience Sensory Experience Agreement/Sharing with Others Agreement/Sharing with Others Expert Opinion Expert Opinion Logical Reasoning Logical Reasoning The Scientific Method The Scientific Method

McGraw-Hill © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Ways of Knowing (Figure 1.1)

McGraw-Hill © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. The Scientific Method Testing ideas in the public arena by formulating a hypothesis (a tentative, testable assertion about certain behaviors, phenomena, or events) within a rigorous format. Testing ideas in the public arena by formulating a hypothesis (a tentative, testable assertion about certain behaviors, phenomena, or events) within a rigorous format. Must be reproducible and described in sufficient detail through 5 distinct steps: Must be reproducible and described in sufficient detail through 5 distinct steps: State the problem State the problem Define the purpose of the study Define the purpose of the study How to gather the information How to gather the information How to organize and analyze the information obtained How to organize and analyze the information obtained How the information is interpreted How the information is interpreted

McGraw-Hill © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. The Chaos Theory A major principle from the 1970s that emphasizes the rarity of general laws, and states that if the data base is large enough, repeated patterns can be discovered and used, even when the conditions are “chaotic”. A major principle from the 1970s that emphasizes the rarity of general laws, and states that if the data base is large enough, repeated patterns can be discovered and used, even when the conditions are “chaotic”. Even with highly complex data, predictability exists if patterns can be found across time. Even with highly complex data, predictability exists if patterns can be found across time.

McGraw-Hill © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Types of Research Research is the formal, systematic application of scholarship, disciplined inquiry, and most often the Scientific Method to the study of problems. Research is the formal, systematic application of scholarship, disciplined inquiry, and most often the Scientific Method to the study of problems. Research methodologies include: Research methodologies include: Experimental researchEthnographic research Correlational researchHistorical research Causal-comparative researchAction research Survey research

McGraw-Hill © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Experimental Research Most conclusive of all scientific methods. Most conclusive of all scientific methods. The researcher establishes treatments and studies the effects, which can lead to clear interpretations. The researcher establishes treatments and studies the effects, which can lead to clear interpretations. The independent variable: What is being tested The independent variable: What is being tested The dependent variable: What is the outcome (i.e., score) The dependent variable: What is the outcome (i.e., score) Single Subject Research is another form of Experimental Research. Single Subject Research is another form of Experimental Research.

McGraw-Hill © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Example of Experimental Research Results (Figure 1.2)

McGraw-Hill © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Correlational Research Examines a relationship among two or more variables; looks for a cause and effect. Examines a relationship among two or more variables; looks for a cause and effect. Can help make more intelligent predictions. Can help make more intelligent predictions. This approach requires no manipulation or intervention, except to administer the instrument. This approach requires no manipulation or intervention, except to administer the instrument. Used when you want to look for and describe relationships that may exist naturally. Used when you want to look for and describe relationships that may exist naturally.

McGraw-Hill © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Is this Assumption Correct? (Figure 1.3)

McGraw-Hill © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Causal-Comparative Research Determines the cause for, or consequences of, differences between groups of people. Determines the cause for, or consequences of, differences between groups of people. Interpretations are limited due to the fact that the investigator can not say conclusively whether a particular factor is a cause for or a result of a behavior. Interpretations are limited due to the fact that the investigator can not say conclusively whether a particular factor is a cause for or a result of a behavior. Differences may occur, but the investigator will not be able to say for sure what caused the difference. Differences may occur, but the investigator will not be able to say for sure what caused the difference.

McGraw-Hill © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Survey Research Obtains data to determine specific characteristics of a group. Obtains data to determine specific characteristics of a group. Variety of survey techniques exist, such as: Variety of survey techniques exist, such as: Descriptive: asks same set of questions (i.e., interview) Descriptive: asks same set of questions (i.e., interview) Open-ended questions Open-ended questions There are 3 difficulties involved with survey research: There are 3 difficulties involved with survey research: Ensuring that questions are clear and not misleading Ensuring that questions are clear and not misleading Getting participants to answer questions honestly Getting participants to answer questions honestly Getting enough questionnaires back so valid interpretations can be made Getting enough questionnaires back so valid interpretations can be made

McGraw-Hill © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Ethnographic Research A form of Qualitative Research A form of Qualitative Research Emphasizes documenting or portraying the everyday experiences of individuals by observing and interviewing them in a naturalistic setting. Emphasizes documenting or portraying the everyday experiences of individuals by observing and interviewing them in a naturalistic setting. Data can include descriptions, audiotapes, video footage, flowcharts showing relationships, etc. Data can include descriptions, audiotapes, video footage, flowcharts showing relationships, etc.

McGraw-Hill © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Historical Research Another form of Qualitative Research. Another form of Qualitative Research. Some aspect of the past is studied. Some aspect of the past is studied. Data is collected and evaluated objectively in order to establish whether causes, effects, or trends of a past event may explain present or future events or occurrences. Data is collected and evaluated objectively in order to establish whether causes, effects, or trends of a past event may explain present or future events or occurrences. The major problem with this research is the question of using an event or time sequence as a true outcome. The major problem with this research is the question of using an event or time sequence as a true outcome.

McGraw-Hill © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Action Research Differs from previously discussed methods in two ways: Differs from previously discussed methods in two ways: 1) Generalizations to other persons, settings, or situations is of minimal importance researchers focus on getting information that will enable them to change conditions in a particular situation (i.e., identifying methods to improve special ed services at a school) researchers focus on getting information that will enable them to change conditions in a particular situation (i.e., identifying methods to improve special ed services at a school) 2) Subjects become active members of the research process by collecting data, etc.

McGraw-Hill © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Critical Analysis of Research Critics raise philosophical, linguistic, ethical, and political concerns such as: Critics raise philosophical, linguistic, ethical, and political concerns such as: Question of Reality Question of Reality Question of Communication Question of Communication Question of Values Question of Values Question of Unstated Assumptions Question of Unstated Assumptions Anything taken for granted before being tested Anything taken for granted before being tested Question of Societal Consequences Question of Societal Consequences

McGraw-Hill © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. The Research Process The schematic components of research are as follows: The schematic components of research are as follows: Statement of the problem: description of the background and rationale for performing the study Statement of the problem: description of the background and rationale for performing the study Hypothesis: prediction of what is expected to occur, or relationship expected between the variables (factors being considered) Hypothesis: prediction of what is expected to occur, or relationship expected between the variables (factors being considered) Definitions: key terms in the problem statement Definitions: key terms in the problem statement

McGraw-Hill © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. The Research Process (cont.) Review of Literature: past or current studies that are relevant to the study Review of Literature: past or current studies that are relevant to the study Sample: subjects of the study Sample: subjects of the study Instrumentation: what will be used to measure or collect data Instrumentation: what will be used to measure or collect data Procedures: step-by-step directions, outlining what will occur from beginning to end Procedures: step-by-step directions, outlining what will occur from beginning to end Data Analysis: statistical procedure to analyze and explain the data Data Analysis: statistical procedure to analyze and explain the data

McGraw-Hill © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. The Research Process (Figure 1.4)