Chapter 3 Researching the Social World Copyright 2012, SAGE Publications, Inc.

The Scientific Method Sociologists practice empiricism, which means they gather information using their senses. The scientific method is a way to find answers to questions about the world. The scientific method is a systematic search for a thorough understanding of the world. Copyright 2012, SAGE Publications, Inc.

The Scientific Method The scientific method uses steps. Uncover questions in need of answers. Review the relevant literature. Develop hypotheses (tentative statements about the relationship between two or more variables). Choose a research method. Collect data. Analyze the data. Copyright 2012, SAGE Publications, Inc.

The Development of Scientific Knowledge The scientific method implies that science develops gradually and cumulatively. Confidence in findings grows as they are confirmed by additional research. All sciences are built on such facts. Copyright 2012, SAGE Publications, Inc.

The Development of Scientific Knowledge Thomas Kuhn (1962) proposed a different model of scientific development in The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. A paradigm (general model) is accepted by most practitioners in a field. However, scientific revolutions occur when one paradigm replaces another after a scientific breakthrough. Copyright 2012, SAGE Publications, Inc.

Sociological Research: Qualitative and Quantitative Research Qualitative Research A scientific method that does not require statistical methods for collecting and reporting data Observation and open-ended questions are two examples. Capture descriptive information. Copyright 2012, SAGE Publications, Inc.

Sociological Research: Qualitative and Quantitative Research Quantitative Research Involves the analysis of numerical data Surveys and experiments are two examples. Can help us describe and understand social realities Copyright 2012, SAGE Publications, Inc.

Sociological Research: Observational Research Involves systematic watching, listening to, and recording what takes place in a natural setting over time The most common observational methods used by sociologists are participant and nonparticipant. Copyright 2012, SAGE Publications, Inc.

Sociological Research: Observational Research Dimensions to any type of observation in sociology Degree to which those being observed are aware that they are being observed Degree to which the presence of the observer may affect those being observed Degree to which the process is structured Copyright 2012, SAGE Publications, Inc.

Observational Research Participant and nonparticipant observation In participant observation the researcher plays a role in the group or setting being observed. In nonparticipant observation the researcher plays little or no role in what is being observed. Copyright 2012, SAGE Publications, Inc.

Observational Research Ethnography The creation of an account of what a group of people do and the way they live Entails much more intensive and lengthy periods of observation Copyright 2012, SAGE Publications, Inc.

Sociological Research: Interviews Information is sought from participants who are asked a series of questions. Types of interviews: Prestructured Unstructured Copyright 2012, SAGE Publications, Inc.

Sociological Research: Surveys Questionnaires are self-administered, written sets of questions. Types of surveys Descriptive Explanatory Sampling Random Stratified Convenience Copyright 2012, SAGE Publications, Inc.

Sociological Research: Experiments Involves the manipulation of one or more characteristics of an independent variable in order to examine the effect of that manipulation Types of experiments Laboratory Natural Field Copyright 2012, SAGE Publications, Inc.

Secondary Data Analysis Historical-Comparative Analysis Goal is to contrast how different historical events and conditions in various societies led to different societal outcomes Content Analysis The systematic and objective analysis of the content of cultural artifacts Copyright 2012, SAGE Publications, Inc.

Issues in Social Research: Reliability and Validity Reliability Involves the degree to which a given measure produces the same results time after time Concern is with consistency Validity Involves whether a researcher is measuring what he/she claims to be Concern is with accuracy Copyright 2012, SAGE Publications, Inc.

Issues in Social Research: Research Ethics Ethics is concerned with issues of right and wrong, the choices that people make, and how they justify them. Research ethics is a balance of potential knowledge (the goal is to increase knowledge) and potential harm (the goal is to minimize or eliminate harm). Copyright 2012, SAGE Publications, Inc.

Issues in Social Research: Research Ethics Physical and Psychological Harm Physical harm can be an unintended consequence of sociological research. Psychological harm can be caused merely by asking people about sensitive issues. Illegal Acts A researcher might witness or even become entangled in illegal acts during the course of his/her research. Copyright 2012, SAGE Publications, Inc.

Issues in Social Research: Research Ethics Violation of Trust Possibility of inadvertently divulging the identity of respondents even though they were promised anonymity or confidentiality Informed Consent and IRBs Institutional review boards are designed to deal with issues of deception in social research and potential harm. Copyright 2012, SAGE Publications, Inc.

Issues in Social Research: Objectivity or Value-Free Sociology Have researchers been, or can they be, objective? Many argue that value-laden research jeopardizes sociology as it could destroy its credibility. Others argue that it is appropriate for researchers to be guided by their values or the values that predominate their society. Copyright 2012, SAGE Publications, Inc.