RESEARCH METHODS: KEY TERMS SECTIONS 1 Hypothesis 2 Variables 3 Sampling Techniques 4 Risk Factors 5 Reliability 6 Validity 7 Ethical Issues 8 Data Collection

Core Studies Loftus & Palmer Maguire Baron-Cohen Piliavin Savage-Rumbaugh Reicher & Haslam Samuel & Bryant Rosenhan Bandura Thigpen & Cleckley Freud Griffiths Dement & Kleitman Milgram Sperry

KEY TERMS Complete key terms sheet for the following terms. HYPOTHESIS EXTRANEOUS VARIABLE OPPORTUNITY SAMPLE VALIDITY ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS SITUATIONAL VARIABLE INTERVIEWER BIAS INTERNAL VALIDITY NULL HYPOTHESIS PERSON VARIABLE EXPERIMENTER BIAS SOCIAL DESIRABILITY ONE TAILED HYPOTHESIS EXPERIMENTAL VARIABLE RELIABILITY QUALITATIVE DATA TWO TAILED HYPOTHESIS CONTROLING EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES INTERNAL RELIABILITY QUANTIATIVE DATA VARIABLES SAMPLING EXTERNAL RELIABILITY MEAN INDEPENDENT VARIABLE RANDOM EXTERNAL VALIDITY MEDIAN DEPENDENT VARIABLE SELF-SELECTED (VOLUNTEER) DEMAND CHARACTERISTICS MODE

HYPOTHESIS Alternative Null One tailed Two tailed

‘there will be an effect of x on y’ Experimental (alterative) Hypothesis Definition A statement of the relationship between the IV and DV Reasons for using An alternative to the null hypothesis (accept/reject)

‘there will be no effect of x on y’ Null Hypothesis An assumption that there is no relationship (difference, association, etc) in the population from which a sample is taken with respect to the variables being studied.

Directional Hypothesis Non-directional hypothesis 1 TAILED Definition Predicts the effect/relationship Reasons for using Previous research suggests the direction Non-directional hypothesis 2 TAILED Definition Does not predict the direction of the effect/relationship Reasons for using Allows for a difference/relationships occurring in either direction Previous research has been inconclusive

VARIABLES Independent Dependent Situational Personal Experimenter Extraneous

Variables Independent Variable Manipulated by the experimenter Create different conditions Dependent Variable Measures the consequence of IV manipulation

ING NEOUS Situational variables are characteristics of the environment in which the experiment is being conducted which may have an effect on the results. The nature of these variables is very much dependent on the nature of the experiment but temperature, time and humidity could all be situational variables. Person or Subject variables are inherent characteristics of the Experimental Unit that might affect outcomes. Hence examples of subject variables might include age, gender and other demographic details (among subjects) and x, y and z (among objects) although this is very much dependent on the object in the experiment. Experimental variables are characteristics of the experimenter or the experimental team which might influence how the experiment is conducted, or how the experimental subject responds/behaves in the experimental setting. There is a wide definition for these variables and they may include age, gender, qualifications, etc.

Controlling EV It is necessary to control extraneous variables so that results are not undermined by their effect (become confounding): Control: Ensuring that an extraneous variable remains the same for all experimental units in the experiment. This requires that you are aware of the extraneous variable during the design stage and that you can control it. Constant: Balance the variable across experimental groups This enables comparisons to be made between experimental units on the basis of the effect of the variable.

Sampling Method Random Self Selected (volunteer) Opportunity

Population Sample Definition Evaluation Definition Evaluation The group of people whom the sample is drawn Evaluation May be biased Sample Definition Selected to be representative of the population Evaluation May be biased ,therefore can’t generalise

Random sampling Definition Every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected Advantage Potentially unbiased Most replicable Disadvantage Needs to be drawn from a large population to be unbiased Difficult to obtain

Volunteer Sample Self Selected Definition Participants become part of a study by volunteering Advantage Access to a variety of participants Ethically sound Disadvantage Volunteer biased Small sample Participants for Psychological Research

Opportunity Sample Definition Advantage Disadvantage Are you available? Opportunity Sample Definition Selecting people who are more easily available Advantage Easy to obtain Disadvantage Very biased Not replicable

Factors associated with research design Control of extraneous variables Interviewer bias Experimenter bias Standardisation

Any variables that change between conditions, other than the IV... Control of Extraneous Variables Any variables that change between conditions, other than the IV...

Interviewer bias Experimenter bias Investigator effect: Anything the investigator does which has an effect on a participant’s performance in a study other then what was intended. Interviewer bias The same in an interview situation, through, for example, leading questions and the ‘Green-spoon’ effect Experimenter bias The effect of an experimenter’s expectations, communicated unconsciously, on a participant’s behaviour

Standardisation Procedures Pts treated in exactly the same way. Instructions Pts told what to do in exactly the same way.

Reliability of Measurement Internal External

Validity Internal External Kelly (1927) stated that a test is valid if it measures what it claims to measure. For example a test of intelligence should measure intelligence and not something else (such as memory). Internal External

Generalisability The findings of any particular study should apply to the whole population

Types of Validity Experimental Internal External Measure Concurrent Content

Validity: The legitimacy of a study Internal Validity The extent to which the a measurement technique measures what it is supposed to Reasons for low internal validity Demand Characteristics: Features of an experiment the elicit a particular response form participants. Participant reactivity Extraneous variables not controlled (CV), act as an additional IV. Mundane realism: Do measures used generalise to real life > contribute to external validity External Validity Validity outside of the research situation, extent to which findings can be generalised Assessing external validity How representative is the sample of participants of the population to which the results are to be generalised? Population V Do the research setting and situation generalise to a real-life setting or situation? Ecological V Do the findings generalise to the past and to the future? Historical V

Situational Variables Participant Variables Investigator Effects Experimental Internal Extraneous Mundane Realism External Ecological Validity Population Validity Historical Validity Extraneous Variables Situational Variables Participant Variables Investigator Effects Demand Characteristics Participant Effects

Participant reactivity: The fact that participants react to cues in an experimental situation Hawthorne Effect Increased attention becomes a confounding variable Demand Characteristics Features of an experiment that a participant unconsciously, responds to when searching for clues about how to behave. A confounding variable. Social Desirability bias The desire to appear favourably

Validity of Psychological Measure Concurrent Validity How well does the measure agree with existing measures? - Test using old and new tests Content Validity Does the method used actually seem to measure what you intended? - Use a panel of experts Concurrent Measure Content

Ethical Issues Right to withdraw Confidentiality Protection from harm Informed consent

Dealing with Ethical Issues Presumptive… A B C Prior…

Dealing with informed consent Presumptive consent: Ask for others’ opinion and presume participants feel the same way. Prior general consent: Get participants to agree to take part in a number of studies, one of which they will be deceived in.

Dealing with Ethical Issues

Dealing with deception Debriefing: Inform participants of true nature of the study after it is conducted and allow them to discuss their feelings. Right to withhold information Cost and benefits: Deception is acceptable if the benefits are sufficient.

Dealing with Ethical Issues

Dealing with protection from psychological harm Anticipating harm and stopping Using role-play Use of questionnaires: Ask people how they would behave. Debriefing

Data Types: Quantitative & Qualitative Measures of central tendency: mean, median, mode Graphical representations

Data Collection Quantitative Data Easy to analysis Produces neat conclusions  Oversimplifies reality Qualitative Data Represents the complexity of human behaviour Provides rich data More difficult to detect patterns and reach conclusions Subjective, affected by personal expectations and beliefs

2,4,4,5,6,6,7,7 8,8,8,8,8 9,10,11,11,12

Measures of Central Tendency Mean: Add values, divide by number of values Makes use of all the data Can be misrepresentative if there are extreme values. Median: Middle value in an ordered list Not affected by extreme scores Not as ‘sensitive’ as the mean Mode: The most common value(s) The mist common value(s) Not useful when there are several modes

Graphs & Charts Histogram Bar Charts Scattergraph Graph showing continuous frequency data with a true zero e.g Exam results 0-30marks Bar Charts Graph showing frequency data; data need not be continuous e.g. Categories Scattergraph For correlations. Scatter of dots; each dot represent one case