Sea Power and Maritime Affairs                                               Lesson 5: The Civil War, 1861-1865: Two Navies

Learning Objectives Comprehend the role of the Union Navy in the strategy for the defeat of the Confederacy. Comprehend the role of the Confederate Navy in the strategy for the defeat of the Union. Know the reasons for vital importance of acquisition of European allies in the South’s Naval Strategy. Know the innovations in naval weapons and technology that emerged during the Civil War.

Remember our Themes! The Navy as an Instrument of Foreign Policy Interaction between Congress and the Navy Interservice Relations Technology Leadership Strategy and Tactics Evolution of Naval Doctrine You’ll see the beginning of all of these

Background of the War

War between the States Dispute between slave and free states over status of western territories. Missouri Compromise - 1820. Kansas-Nebraska Act - 1854. Dred Scott Decision - 1857. Southern states secede after Lincoln elected in 1860. Confederate States of America established - Feb 1861. Status of federal territory in the Confederacy in question. Fort Sumter, Charleston, South Carolina: Attacked by Confederate forces on April 12, 1861. Missouri Compromise, Henry Clay, Connecticut: admits Missouri to the Union as a slave state and Maine as a free state and dividing the rest of the Louisiana Purchase into a slave area in the South and a free area in the North. Kansas-Nebraska Act, May 30, 1854: provided that settlers in the newly created territories of Kansas and Nebraska should decid whether to have slavery or not. It nullified the Missouri Compromise and greatly increased tensions which led to the Civil War. Dred Scott Decision, 1857: Supreme Court Decision that the Missouri Compromise was unconstitutional and that Congress had no power to prohibit slavery; ultimately nullified by the 13th and 14th amendments.

Fort Sumter

Naval Comparison

A Navy Divided Franklin Buchanan Matthew Fontaine Maury Raphael Semmes David Glasgow Farragut David Dixon Porter John Ericcson John Dahlgren Charles Wilkes Samuel F. DuPont Franklin Buchanan Matthew Fontaine Maury Raphael Semmes Division of Naval talent; US got the lion’s share

Balance of Naval Power North South Naval Yards 4 Ship Builders 4 Industrial Base 4 Number of Ships 4 Leadership 4 North had higher population, more and diversified exports, more shipyards, more heavy industry, more transportation (railroads) South was more agricultural - tobacco and cotton - slavery made them profitable because so labor-intensive North had the advantage: Yards Builders Ind Base Ships Leaders - very salty leaders in the Navy at this time - at first, lots of questions as to whose side they would take - although several able commanders joined Conf. Navy, the majority stayed loyal to the Union South had a strong military tradition; sent a lot of people to West Point in the great state of New York. North had the bulk of Naval experience

Common Operational Heritage Union and Confederate Navies War of 1812 — Coastal defense and commerce raiding: Fighting from an inferior position against an enemy that has “command of the sea”. 1815-1846 — Global deployments: Protection of American maritime commerce overseas. 1846-1848 — Mexican-American War U.S. Navy controls the seas throughout the war. Ports established on the Pacific Coast. *** War of 1812 - lessons learned from coastal defense against British *** Importance of protecting merchant shipping during war - ability to raid enemy commerce - *** Offensive power projection - amphibious assault of Vera Cruz Pacific Ports - increased trade with Orient - opening of Japan *** After Crimean War France and esp. Britain realize the need for armor to counter shells and steam power needed for mobility - Am Navy falls behind, but still many experience mariners due to thriving merchant marine

Naval Comparison The Confederate Navy The Union Navy Inferior naval strength. U.S. Navy traditions prior to the Mexican-American War - Defensive. Coastal defense. Commerce raiding (Guerre de course). The Union Navy Superior naval strength built up throughout the war. Royal Navy traditions and U.S. Navy traditions in the Mexican-American War - Offensive. Establish control of sea lines of communication. Blockade of enemy coast. Power projection through amphibious assault. Defend Conf territory Decrease Union commerce - although Union very sufficient compared to the Conf War of Attrition - hold out long enough and Union will leave them alone Union blockade of Atlantic and Gulf ports Power Projection: 1. Blockade Bases 2. Mississipi River campaign part of overall Union strategy to “strangle” the South to cut off Texas, Ark, and Louisiana from the rest of the states and allow free movements of Union armies deep into Southern terr.

Diplomacy

Diplomacy for the North Keep Great Britain truly neutral Reconcile the blockade of Southern ports with British freedom of trade. Problem: Strong pro-Confederacy sentiment in important segments of British policy-making elites. *** Keep Britain from recognizing Confederacy as sovereign state - need a real blockade, not a paper blockade so that Britain obey *** Maybe can get Brit support if cotton shipments cut off Problems with King Cotton - large inventory in Eur, Egypt and India production increased Needed victories to show the Brits they would win militarily, but even with many victories, outcome of war still uncertain due to Union strength *** Only time Br almost entered war Brit ship Trent captured by CAPT Charles Wilkesin San Jacinto - knew about two Conf diplomats aboard - violated neutral rights of Br ship - same type of beef US had w/ Br during War of 1812 - all apologies made by Lincoln who said it was not govt sanctioned

Diplomacy for the South Win British recognition and naval aid. Problems: War is viewed as a rebellion - not a conflict between sovereign states. Outcome of the war is uncertain. Diplomatic inexperience and a weak State Department. Fallacy of the "King Cotton" thesis. Slavery 1861- The “Trent Affair” Union Navy violates neutral rights of British ship. The slavery issue Trent Affair Closest the Confederates ever came to winning outright British support US warship “San Jacinto” detained Trent and seized two Confederate commissioners onboard. Great Britain, outraged by this violation of its neutrality, deliberated a declaration of war against the union. US disavowed the act and released the Confederate prisoners

Outcome of Diplomacy Ultimately a Failure Naval Agent James Bulloch gets that aid - Commerce raiders (Alabama, Florida, Shenandoah) - Blockade Runners - Laird rams (clearly warships; blockade breakers) Battle of Antietam (September 1862), Emancipation Proclamation, and Charles F. Adams’ protests end aid. Battle of Antietam gave Lincoln the victory he needed to announce Emancipation Proclamation Initially, Europe worried proclamation would affect cotton supply Ended British support due to massive public opinion swing in America’s favor

Strategy 19 June 1864

Union Naval Strategy Part of General Winfield Scott’s master “Anaconda Plan” for victory. Blockade the entire Confederate coast. Capture Southern ports for coal, water, food: bombardment and amphibious assaults. Control of Mississippi River. Vital line of communication for Confederacy. Cut off Texas, Arkansas and Louisiana. Riverine operations in western areas. Combined Army-Navy operations against Confederate forces. Union Army -- Capture Confederate capital at Richmond. Anaconda Plan: cordoning off the Confederacy with a tight naval blockade while advancing with an army of perhaps 85,000 down the Mississippi River from southern Illinois Plan had some merit, but it rested on the remarkable assumption that the Confederate army in Virginia (> 100,000 men) would remain idle while the Union forces were advancing in the West

Confederate Naval Strategy Part of overall strategy of “Attrition Warfare”. Army will defend territory and threaten Washington. Coastal defense: Army forts and new naval weapons systems. Blockade-running: Attempt to continue commercial trade with Europe. Operations hurt by Southerners’ desires for luxury goods. Union blockade’s increasing effectiveness increases profits. Commerce raiding: Successful cruises divert Union ships from blockade duty. Privateers (1861): Declaration of Paris - 1856. Unable to secure prize courts (sovereignty problems). *** armaments from Norfolk dispersed to Conf ports *** lusury goods cut into war necessitities The blockade were entrepreneurs, they’d run whatever brought in the most cash *** Privateers - only a player early in the war Dec of Paris makes privateering illegal in eyes of Br and Fr - nowhere to take prizes because of blockade more money in blockade running Commerce raiding different- though not ultimately effective

Naval Administration in the North Union Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles Rapid and massive ship-building program. Only 42 ships at the beginning of the war. 264 commissioned by December, 1861 Convened Ironclad Board, August 1861, to combat Virginia *** Lincoln appoints Welles as Sec Nav - good dude chaos at first as states seceded 8 Bureaus now instead of 5 - made it more efficient 7 March 1861, Gideon Welles assumed the secretaryship of the Navy 264 vessels in commission by December 1861 need to make the blockade legal New ships - massive building program in order to man the blockade of the South - use of new technologies - Dahlgren guns, steam, screws props, armor Ironclad board: we’ll get to the ironclads later

Union Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles

Naval Administration in the South Confederate Secretary of the Navy Stephen Mallory Confederacy issues letters of marque to privateers. Attempts to use new technology to gain advantage. Conversion of older ships to armored “ironclads”. Re-emergence of the ram as a naval weapon. South immediately began to issue letters of Marque to privateers Union regarded these as pirates Paris Declaration of 1854, which we had refused to sign, said privateering was illegal Mallory had been chairman of the Naval Affairs Committee in the US Senate; new about new technologies; thought he could get an edge Ram- became very popular even after the war; torpedoes made them obsolete

Naval Administration in the South (cont’d) James Bulloch attempts to gain British aid. Coordinates construction of warships in Great Britain. Questions of legality for a neutral power (Great Britain) Antietam (September 1862), Emancipation Proclamation, and Union protests end aid. James Bulloch- naval agent to London Diplomatically savvy Gets far with Britain until Antietam

Confederate Secretary of the Navy Stephen Mallory

Naval Operations and Important Battles

Early Naval Operations Norfolk Navy Yard Largest naval base and arsenal in the United States. Captured by Confederate forces on 21 April. USS Merrimack scuttled by retreating Union forces. Large number of guns captured by Confederates. Union blockade of the Confederacy: “Paper Blockade” needs to become real as soon as possible. Forward bases required for an effective blockade. Amphibious operations launched to seize bases in the South. *** Conf states declare independence and claim right of eminent domain over federal bases on their turf - S Carolina leader of secessionist states - series of forts protecting Charleston harbor - - Union forces retreat into Fort Sumter and surrender - april 1861 - Lincoln mobilizes the militia therefore causing Virginia and several other states to secede and join the Confederacy *** Norfolk now in jeopardy - largest Union naval base - captured by Rebs after failed attempt to destroy munitions - capture the USS Merrimac as well as huge arsenal used to defend ports - more to come

Battle of Port Royal Attempt to establish first Union base on Confederate territory at Port Royal Sound -- 7 November 1861. Commodore Stephen F. DuPont Superior naval gunfire: Directed against Confederate forts defending the Sound. Confederates abandon forts. Union soldiers and Marines land unopposed. Other Union amphibious operations will resemble Port Royal operation. 77 ships - 11 deep draft warships, assortment of small, hastily built gunboats, more than thirty transports loaded with 16,000 army soldiers neutralized the Sound’s two earthen forts with gunfire from 46 gun steam frigate Wabash Confederates fled, Union soldiers landed without oppositoin

USS Port Royal Based in Hawaii Ensign Ford going to this boat

Battle of Hampton Roads First engagement between two ironclad ships “The Monitor and the Merrimack”

CSS Virginia USS Merrimack raised at Norfolk. Iron armor and ram added by Confederate Navy. Renamed Virginia and commanded by Franklin Buchanan. Defeats conventional Union ships on 8 March 1862. Union soldiers scuttle Merrimack on retreat from Norfolk Shipyards USS Merrimack - raised and rebuilt as ironclad 1 fore and 1 aft gun with several along the side Heads out into the Chesapeake and starts punching holes in the wooden blockade ships

Franklin Buchanan Confederate States Navy Commanding Officer of CSS Virginia at the Battle of Hampton Roads.

USS Monitor Welles’ Ironclad Board John Ericcson’s Monitor Highly armored with low freeboard. Single turret mounting two Dahlgren guns. Moved to Norfolk area to engage Virginia. Pounded each other for four hours Tactical draw but a strategic Union victory - Confederate Navy unable to break the blockade of Norfolk. Union hears about this and picks John Ericcson’s Monitor design (Princeton) - first screw propelled ironclad - low freeboard - turret with two Dahlgren guns -armored - screw powered - LT John Worden - neither any good in open ocean, especially Monitor -but Monitor has a smaller draft to Virginia’s - Union controls north, Conf south - sinks Union ships at anchor in Hampton Roads - next day Monitor arrives under tow from NY - Minn grounded - protection - six hour duel ends as Monitor gets the advantage due to maneuverability in shoal water, but a lucky shot hits inside the turret - both ships withdraw - Norfolk eventually forced to be abandoned by Conf forces - Monitor blown up, and Monitor sinks in heavy weather off the capes later in the year - more Monitors though - two turrets, etc.

USS Monitor versus CSS Virginia 9 March 1862

John Ericcson “Monitor” design is improved and used to produce large numbers of ships for the Union Navy necessary for the assault of Confederate coasts and ports.

Three Theaters Great Inland Rivers Atlantic and Gulf Coasts Blue Water Mississippi River Basin Vicksburg Mobile Bay Atlantic and Gulf Coasts Fort Fisher Blue Water CSS Alabama Remaining battles separated into three main theaters

Inland River Campaigns Combined Union Army - Navy offensives Goal: Control of the Mississippi River Navy gunboats and transports used to support Army Union forces advance down Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers to the Mississippi Anaconda Plan - Winfield Scott control Miss - Union commerce from NW and cut off Ulysses Grant in command David Glasgow Farragut in command in south - first Rear Admiral - served under David Porter on Essex in War of 1812 as a MIDN - proves his leadership capabilities in western campaign Foote in North - eventually will link up Vicksburg falls to Union siege - Navy lines of communication from north New Orleans captured - Porter under Farragut used mortar boats Red River - unsuccessful Union campaign into Louisiana - poor coordination

Capture of New Orleans Flag Officer David G. Farragut commanding Commander David Dixon Porter Tried to mortar bomb Fort Jackson and St. Philip into submission knocked a whole in the wall Farragut charged through and took the city Congress makes him an Admiral Porter was to take out Fort Jackson and St. Philip with mortar boats. Didn’t succeed, but two gunboats commanded by Captain Henry H. Bell cut a narrow path through the massive log obstruction the Confederates had placed in the river 16 July, Congress created the rank of rear admiral to honor Farragut for capturing the South’s major entrepot and the gateway to the Mississippi

Mortar Boats

Siege of Vicksburg Vicksburg the big obstacle to dominance of the Mississippi Porter ferried Grant’s troops across to the east bank of the river, south of the fort Grant takes the fort from the rear Surrender on 4 July 1863 Naval support: gunfire, troop transport, and logistical reinforcement

Siege of Vicksburg

David Dixon Porter Siege of Vicksburg

Battle of Mobile Bay Union fleet commanded by David Glasgow Farragut. Confederate fleet commanded by Franklin Buchanan. Entrance to Mobile Bay heavily defended. Torpedo buoys placed in entrance to the Bay. Guns of Fort Morgan defend only open channel. Union fleet outnumbers and outguns the Confederate fleet waiting in Mobile Bay. Farragut positions “monitors” between the rest of his fleet and Fort Morgan. Brooklyn’s captain stops and blocks the channel. “Damn the torpedoes! Full speed ahead!” M. F Maury Proponent of the use of “torpedoes” to defend Confederate ports. Torpedoes - floating containers of explosives anchored to the bottom Tecumseh, a monitor, hits torpedo and goes down; eighty out of the hundred crew die. The sloop, Brooklyn, goes dead in the water. Farragut’s famous line. Buchanan on the Tennessee, a Virginia class, goes after Farragut on the Hartford, when he could have gone after some of the smaller ships. Hartford and monitors beat the crap out of the Tenessee.

Torpedo Wooden keg filled with black powder with a contact fuse anchored in port channels.

David Glasgow Farragut Battle of Mobile Bay “Damn the torpedoes, full speed ahead!”

Battle of Mobile Bay 5 August 1864

Fort Fisher The seaward protector of Wilmington, NC railhead to Richmond supplies Lee’s Army Highly-defended by Confederate guns.

Fort Fisher Combined Union Army-Navy operation. Union fleet commanded by David Dixon Porter. First assault fails - Christmas 1864. Second Assault Sailors and Marines attack the fort with Army forces. Only successful amphibious assault against a heavily defended fort. Heavy, constant, targeted naval gunfire necessary for success. David Dixon Porter is commander - Farragut declines due to battle fatigue Porter is to soften the fort with naval gunfire so the army can sweep in under General Benjamin F. Butler Christmas assault fails when Butler says the navy has softened them up enough He’s sacked, and Brigadier General Alfred H. Terry is brought in. They try again two weeks later, and are sucessful. Wilmington is in Union hands; lee is cut off

Confederate Commerce Raiders Highly successful in the disruption of Union maritime commerce. Captain Raphael Semmes CSS Sumter CSS Alabama Captures 68 Union vessels. Sunk at Cherbourg, France in duel with USS Kearsarge. *** best Conf Navy officer - wreaked havoc on Union commerce *** Sumter - snuck out of New Orleans *** Alabama - most famous raider from Bulloch in Britain - Semmes takes command - would capture crew, take the good stuff, then burn baby burn - no intl. recognition of confederacy, so no prize courts in foreign ports and southern ports blockaded - all over N Atlantic and Caribbean captures 68 Union vessels - finally caught in port in Cherbourg France (D-Day), Kearsarge sinks her off the coast - last duel between sailing ships - also Florida and Shenandoah are very effective early in the war - large dents made in Union commerce - Popularized by the Navy because it was the only solitary naval action; Mahan preached against Alabama at War College

Captain Raphael Semmes CSS Alabama

CSS Alabama - Commerce Raiding Route

CSS Alabama

Raphael Semmes

Tactical Trends in the Civil War Introduction of “ironclads”: Strengths: Heavily armored for coastal assault. Weaknesses: Low mobility on the open ocean. Question of a fleet's ability to suppress coastal fortifications unanswered. Appreciation for combined (Army-Navy) operations. Proper planning and coordination essential for success. *** Iron Clads good in certain conditions - but technology not yet available to make them into blue-water fleet type ships *** Needed combined ops in many cases to take Southern ports, no consensus on this matter - more later in WW II with Galipoli *** Combined amphibious ops on rivers and coasts - important to coordinate efforts Alabama the only stand-alone action

Overall Technological Advances

Technological Innovation North — Monitor Class Combination of steam, screw, armor, and a gun turret. Large numbers built. “Dahlgren Guns” effective at close range. Gives Union Navy the advantage on coastal and inland waterways. South CSS Virginia -- Steam power and iron armor. The “Davids” CSS Hunley - submarine. “Torpedoes” “Laird” rams. *** Most ships built were combo steam/sail with Dahlgren guns - some with armor, some without, nothing new here Monitors - truly innovative, low freeboard, gun turret BUT - no good in open ocean, only in coastal and inland waterways Still with the Dahlgren gun. *** - USS Virginia captured at Norfolk and rebuilt as CSS Virginia - other iron clads built, but outmatched by Monitors - improved this design - CSS Tennessee at Mobile - surrenders to Farragut at end of battle - Submarines - never wholly submerged, spar with a mine at the end Hunley a true sub, but unsuccessful after drowning a couple crews What is a torpedo??? Civil War = mine Laird - Brit company’s design of an underwater ram incorporated on Southern vessels - mainly used for coastal defense - not extremely expensive

CSS Hunley

Conclusions Decline of U.S. Merchant Marine due in large to the obsolescent sailing vessels used. Northern success in application of British-like offensive naval warfare PLUS Failure of Southern commerce raiding to win the war at sea = QUESTION: Will American naval officers still regard commerce raiding as the proper strategy in time of war ??????? The “Alabama Claims” cause a lasting diplomatic debate with Great Britain. *** - Inaccurate conclusions made ??? -- Mahan next week -- Will talk much more about commerce raiding in WW I and II when the submarine comes into play until 1890’s this is the general consensus *** - Alabama claims - leftover from the war - some Brit ports had allowed prizes from the Alabama to use facilities - not settled until 1872 *** US argues against legal blockade during preludes to the two world wars - Steam ship tactics

Conclusions Union blockade sets a precedent that that Woodrow Wilson finds inconvenient in 1914-1917. Joint Navy-Army Operations reach an unprecedented level of high efficiency on the Mississippi River. Joint Ops reach high point in the second amphib landing at Fort Fisher, North Carolina, closing down the confederacy’s last open port supporting R. E. Lee’s Army. *** - Inaccurate conclusions made ??? -- Mahan next week -- Will talk much more about commerce raiding in WW I and II when the submarine comes into play until 1890’s this is the general consensus *** - Alabama claims - leftover from the war - some Brit ports had allowed prizes from the Alabama to use facilities - not settled until 1872 *** US argues against legal blockade during preludes to the two world wars -

Next Time: Developments of Naval Technology and Strategy Discussion Next Time: Developments of Naval Technology and Strategy