Chapter 5 States of Consciousness

Some Early Definitions Consciousness: All the sensations, perceptions, memories, and feelings you are aware of in any instant Waking Consciousness: Normal, clear, organized, alert awareness Altered State of Consciousness (ASC): Awareness that is distinctly different in quality or pattern from waking consciousness

Sleep Definition: Innate, biological rhythm Microsleep: Brief shift in brain-wave patterns similar to those of sleep Sleep Deprivation: Sleep loss; being deprived of needed amounts of sleep Sleep-Deprivation Psychosis: Major disruption that occurs because of sleep loss Hypersomnia: Excessive daytime sleepiness

Figure 5.2 FIGURE 5.2 Sleep rhythms. Bars show periods of sleep during the fourth, fifth, and sixth weeks of an experiment with a human subject. During unscheduled periods, the subject was allowed to select times of sleep and lighting. The result was a sleep rhythm of about 25 hours. Notice how this free-running rhythm began to advance around the clock as they fell asleep later each day. When periods of darkness (shaded area) were imposed during the fifth week, the rhythm quickly resynchronized with 24-hour days. (Adapted from Czeisler, 1981.)

Figure 5.3 FIGURE 5.3 Development of sleep patterns. Short cycles of sleep and waking gradually become the night-day cycle of an adult. While most adults don’t take naps, midafternoon sleepiness is a natural part of the sleep cycle.

Measuring Sleep Changes Electroencephalograph (EEG): Brain-wave machine; amplifies and records electrical activity in the brain Beta Waves: Small fast waves associated with alertness and awakeness Alpha Waves: Large, slow waves associated with relaxation and falling asleep

Stages of Sleep Stage 1: Small, irregular waves produced in light sleep (people may or may not say they were asleep) Hypnic Jerk: Reflex muscle twitch throughout body that may occur in Stage 1 Stage 2: Deeper sleep; sleep spindles (bursts of distinctive brain-wave activity) appear Stage 3: Deeper sleep; Delta waves appear; very large and slow Stage 4: Deepest level of normal sleep; almost purely Delta waves

States of Sleep Rapid Eye Movements (REM): Associated with dreaming; sleep is very light. Body is very still during REM sleep. Lack of muscle paralysis during REM sleep is called REM Behavioral Disorder. Non-REM (NREM) Sleep: Occurs during stages 1, 2, 3, and 4; no rapid eye movement occurs. Seems to help us recover from daily fatigue.

Figure 5.6 FIGURE 5.6 (a) Average proportion of time adults spend daily in REM sleep and NREM sleep. REM periods add up to about 20 percent of total sleep time. (b) Typical changes in stages of sleep during the night. Notice that dreams mostly coincide with REM periods.

Sleep Disturbances Insomnia: Difficulty in getting to sleep or staying asleep, or waking early Sleeping pills exacerbate insomnia; cause decrease in REM and Stage 4 sleep and may cause dependency Drug-Dependency Insomnia: Sleeplessness that follows withdrawal from sleeping pills

Types and Causes of Insomnia Temporary Insomnia: Brief period of sleeplessness caused by worry, stress, and excitement. Avoid fighting it and read a book, for example, until you’re struggling to stay awake. Chronic Insomnia: Exists if sleeping troubles last for more than three weeks. Adopt regular schedule; go to bed at the same time each night, for example. Tryptophan: Amino acid (chemical) that produces sleep.

More Sleep Disturbances Sleepwalking (Somnambulism): Occurs in NREM sleep during Stages 3 and 4 Sleeptalking: Speaking while asleep; occurs in NREM sleep

Even More Sleep Disturbances Nightmares: Bad dreams Occur during REM sleep May occur once or twice a month; brief and easily (unfortunately) remembered Imagery Rehearsal: Mentally rehearse the changed dream before you go to sleep again; may help to eliminate nightmares

Night Terrors Night Terrors: Total panic and hallucinations may occur Occurs during Stage 4 sleep Most common in childhood; may occur in adults

Physiological Sleep Problems Sleep Apnea: Interrupted breathing during sleep; cause of very loud snoring Hypersomnia: Extreme daytime sleepiness Apnea can be treated by Surgery Weight loss Breathing mask Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS; Crib Death): Sudden, unexplained death of healthy infant (infants should sleep on back or on side to try to prevent)

Dreams REM Rebound: Extra rapid eye movement sleep following REM sleep deprivation Psychodynamic (Freudian) Theory: Emphasizes internal conflicts, motives, and unconscious forces Wish Fulfillment: Freudian belief that many dreams are expressions of unconscious desires Much evidence to refute this Dream Symbols: Images that have a deeper symbolic meaning Activation-Synthesis Hypothesis: Dream content may be affected by motor commands in the brain (that occur during sleep) that are not carried out

Hypnosis Altered state of consciousness characterized by intensely narrowed attention and increased openness to suggestion Mesmer: Believed he could cure diseases by passing magnets over body; true “animal magnetism” (“mesmerize” means to hypnotize) Must cooperate to become hypnotized Hypnotic Susceptibility: How easily a person can be hypnotized Basic Suggestion Effect: Tendency of hypnotized people to carry out suggested actions as though they were involuntary

Hypnosis Can’s and Cannot’s Help people relax Reduce pain Get people to make better progress in therapy Hypnosis CANNOT Produce acts of superhuman strength Produce age regression Force you to do things against your will

Stage Hypnosis Simulation of hypnotic effects. Tricks of the Trade: Waking Suggestibility: People on stage do not want to spoil the act, so they will follow any instruction. Selection of Responsive Subjects: Any “volunteer” who does not get hypnotized in the stage group and does not follow instructions is “voted off.” The Hypnosis Label Disinhibits: On stage, once you are “in a hypnotic trance,” your responsibility for actions is removed; you can do whatever you want!

More Stage Hypnosis “Tricks of the Trade” Hypnotist as Director: Once they are in a trance, the “volunteers” are suddenly the show’s stars, and they will act like it. The hypnotists only need to direct them. Stage Hypnotists Use Tricks: Stage hypnosis is 50% deception and 50% taking advantage of the situation

Meditation Mental exercise designed to produce relaxation or heightened awareness Concentrative Meditation: Attention is paid to a single focal point (i.e., object, thought, etc.) Produces relaxation response and thus works to reduce stress Receptive Meditation: Based on widening attention span to become aware of everything experienced at a given moment Mantra: Word(s) or sound(s) repeated silently during concentrative meditation Relaxation Response: Occurs at time of relaxation; internal response that prevents activation of adrenal glands

Sensory Deprivation (SD) Any major reduction in amount or variety of sensory stimulation Benefits Sensory enhancement Relaxation Changing habits REST: Restricted Environmental Stimulation Theory: Makes it easier to change bad habits

Figure 5.10 FIGURE 5.10 A sensory isolation chamber. Small flotation tanks like the one pictured have been used by psychologists to study the effects of mild sensory deprivation. Subjects float in darkness and silence. The shallow body-temperature water contains hundreds of pounds of Epsom salts, so that subjects float near the surface. Mild sensory deprivation produces deep relaxation.

Drugs and Altered States of Consciousness Psychoactive Drug: Substance capable of altering attention, judgment, memory, time sense, self-control, emotion, or perception Stimulant: Substance that increases activity in body and nervous system Depressant: Substance that decreases activity in body and nervous system

Figure 5.11 FIGURE 5.11 Spectrum and continuum of drug action. Many drugs can be rated on a stimulation-depression scale according to their effects on the central nervous system. Although LSD, mescaline, and marijuana are listed here, the stimulation depression scale is less relevant to these drugs. The principal characteristic of such hallucinogens is their mind-altering quality.

Physical Dependence Physical Dependence: Addiction based on drug tolerance and withdrawal symptoms Drug Tolerance: Reduction in body’s response to a drug Withdrawal Symptoms: Physical illness following withdrawal of the drug

Psychological Dependence Psychological Dependence: Drug dependence based on psychological or emotional needs Usually crave drug Can be as powerful as physiological addiction

Stimulants (Uppers) Amphetamine: Synthetic stimulants that excite nervous system Dexedrine and Methamphetamine are two types of stimulants Amphetamine Psychosis: Loss of contact with reality because of amphetamine use; user tends to have paranoid delusions

Cocaine Central Nervous System stimulant derived from leaves of coca plant; also used as local anesthetic From 1886-1906, Coca-Cola did indeed have cocaine in it! Highly addictive drug Anhedonia (Inability to Feel Pleasure): Common after cocaine withdrawal

Designer Drugs Chemically engineered version of an existing drug; made to skirt drug laws MDMA (Ecstasy): Chemically similar to amphetamine; created by small variations in a drug’s structure Risks of using MDMA are unclear May cause severe liver damage Repeated use damages serotonergic brain cells

Caffeine Most frequently used psychoactive drug in North America; present in colas, chocolate, coffee, tea Causes hand tremors, sweating, talkativeness, tinnitus, suppresses fatigue or sleepiness, increases alertness May be hazardous to pregnant women if used excessively Caffeinism: Physiological dependence on caffeine Symptoms: Insomnia, irritability, loss of appetite, chills, racing heart, elevated body temperature

Nicotine Natural stimulant found mainly in tobacco; known carcinogen May cause stomach pain, vomiting, diarrhea, confusion, tremors Addictive Responsible for 97% of lung cancer deaths in men, 74% in women Sum: DON’T SMOKE; SMOKING KILLS (SO DOES CHEWING TOBACCO)

Sedatives: Barbiturates Barbiturates: Sedative drugs that depress brain activity Seconal and Amytal are two types

Sedatives: Tranquilizers Tranquilizers: Lower anxiety and reduce tension Valium, Xanax, and Librium are three types Rohypnol: Related to Valium; lowers inhibitions and produces relaxation or intoxication. Larger doses can induce short-term amnesia and sleep Date rape drug because it’s odorless and tasteless Drug Interaction: One drug increases the effect of another

GHB GHB (Gamma-Hydroxybutyrate): Central Nervous System (CNS) depressant that relaxes and sedates; combination of degreasing solvent and drain cleaner Sedative effects may result in nausea, loss of muscle control, and either sleep or a loss of consciousness Inhibits gag reflex, so some choke to death on their own vomit Addictive and deadly

Alcohol Ethyl Alcohol: Intoxicating element in fermented and distilled liquors NOT a stimulant but DOES lower inhibitions Depressant Binge Drinking: Consuming five or more drinks in a short time; four or more for women Serious sign of alcohol abuse

Figure 5.12 FIGURE 5.12 The behavioral effects of alcohol are related to blood alcohol content and the resulting suppression of higher mental function. Arrows indicate the typical threshold for legal intoxication in the United States.

How a Drinking Problem May Develop (Jellinek, 1960) Initial Phase: Social drinker turns to alcohol to relieve tension or feel good Crucial Phase: Person begins to lose control over drinking Chronic Phase: Person is now alcohol dependent

Treatment for Alcohol Abuse and Dependence Detoxification: Withdrawal of the person from alcohol; occurs in a medical setting and is tightly controlled; often necessary before long-term treatment begins

Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) Alcoholics Anonymous (AA): Worldwide self-help organization composed of recovering alcoholics; emphasizes admitting powerlessness over alcohol usage and wanting to recover. Spiritual component Free; around for over 70 years!

Some Hallucinogens Hallucinogen: Substance that alters or distorts sensory perceptions Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD): Hallucinogen that can produce hallucinations and other psychotic symptoms Mescaline (Peyote) and Psilocybin (Magic Mushrooms) PCP (Angel Dust): Initially can have hallucinogenic effects; also an anesthetic and has stimulant and depressant effects

Marijuana Cannabis Sativa (Marijuana; Pot): Leaves and flowers of the hemp plant Active chemical: THC Effects: Relaxation, time distortion, perceptual distortions Psychologically, NOT physiologically, addictive

Some Health Risks of Using Marijuana Causes precancerous changes in lung cells. Can suppress immune system, perhaps increasing risk of disease. Activity levels in the cerebellum are lower than normal in pot users. Pot may damage some of the brain’s memory centers.

Dream Interpretation: Freud Four dream processes (mental filters) that hide true purposes of dreams Condensation: Combining several people, objects, or events into a single dream image Displacement: Directing emotions or actions toward safe or unimportant dream images Symbolization: Expressing feelings or ideas symbolically in dreams; not literal expression Secondary Elaboration: Making a dream more logical and adding details while remembering it

Dreams: Perls Most dreams are a special message about what is missing in our lives, what we avoid doing when awake, or feelings that we need to re-own

Lucid Dreaming Person feels fully awake within the dream and feels capable of normal thought and action