CiDT Faculty of Education, Arts and Social Sciences Copyright © Feb 2006 Open University Malaysia 1 Trends and Issues in Educational Technology HMEF 5083 Chapter 7 Instructional Design for Effective Learning

CiDT Faculty of Education, Arts and Social Sciences 2 Copyright © Feb 2006 Open University Malaysia Course Map

CiDT Faculty of Education, Arts and Social Sciences 3 Copyright © Feb 2006 Open University Malaysia Chapter Overview Introduction Overview on Instructional Design -History of Instructional Design -Understanding Instructional Design Instructional Design Theories -R. M. Gagne’s Instructional Design Theory -C. M. Reigeluth’s Instructional Design Theory -M. D. Merrill’s Instructional Design Theory -D. H. Jonassen’s Instructional Design Theory Instructional Design Models -Selecting Models -Generic Instructional Design Model -Specific Instructional Design Model Summary -Key Terms -Discussion Question -Readings

CiDT Faculty of Education, Arts and Social Sciences 4 Copyright © Feb 2006 Open University Malaysia “The best design doesn’t compensate for the lack of skills needed to develop quality instruction.” - Montague, Wulfrek, Ellis (1980) Inadequate designers, despite the quality of the design models will produce inferior quality instruction. Remember that starting with the end in mind limits any room for creativity and emergence

CiDT Faculty of Education, Arts and Social Sciences 5 Copyright © Feb 2006 Open University Malaysia Figure 7.1: Steps that could be undertaken to plan instruction systematically

CiDT Faculty of Education, Arts and Social Sciences 6 Copyright © Feb 2006 Open University Malaysia Figure 7.2: Effective learning objectives

CiDT Faculty of Education, Arts and Social Sciences 7 Copyright © Feb 2006 Open University Malaysia Activity 7.1 Select any two of the philosophers mentioned above and do a further analysis of their contributions.

CiDT Faculty of Education, Arts and Social Sciences 8 Copyright © Feb 2006 Open University Malaysia Table 7.1: Terminologies Used in Instructional Design TerminologyDescription InstructionA planned process that facilitates learning. ISD/IDInstructional Systems Design (or alternatively called Instructional Systems Development) - a process provides a means for sound decision making to determine the who, what, when, where, why, and how of training. ISD is often called SAT (System Approach to Training) or ADDIE (Analysis, Design, Development, Implement, Evaluate). ISTInstructional Systems Technology. A survey of websites shows that IST is normally related to a program, a department or a faculty which offers courses related to ISD. Check the following website: indiana.edu/~ist/ Instructional contextThe physical and psychological environment in which instruction is delivered or in which transfer occurs. Related Term: Learning environment. Individualised instruction The use, by students, of systematically designed learning activities and materials specifically chosen to suit their individual interests, abilities, and experience. Such instruction is usually self-paced.

CiDT Faculty of Education, Arts and Social Sciences 9 Copyright © Feb 2006 Open University Malaysia Table 7.2: Definitions of Educational Design DefinitionSource The process of deciding which methods of instruction are best for bringing about desired changes in student knowledge and skills for a specific student population. Reigeluth, C.M. (1983:7) The science of creating detailed specifications for the development, evaluation and maintenance of situations which facilitate the learning of both large and small units of subject matter. Ritchey, R. (186, p. 9) Instructional design simply defined means using a systematic process to understand a human performance problem, figuring out what to do about it and then doing something about it. McArdle, G. (1991) The systematic process of translating principles of learning and instruction into plans for instructional materials and activities. Smith & Ragan (1993, p. 2) Newby, J.T., 1996, p. 17)

CiDT Faculty of Education, Arts and Social Sciences 10 Copyright © Feb 2006 Open University Malaysia Activity 7.2 Reflect on all the definitions above and construct one that is based on your teaching experiences.

CiDT Faculty of Education, Arts and Social Sciences 11 Copyright © Feb 2006 Open University Malaysia Activity 7.3 What do you think will be the skills and knowledge of future Instructional Designers?

CiDT Faculty of Education, Arts and Social Sciences 12 Copyright © Feb 2006 Open University Malaysia Figure 7.3: Three elements of Gagne’s Instructional Design Theory

CiDT Faculty of Education, Arts and Social Sciences 13 Copyright © Feb 2006 Open University Malaysia Figure 7.4: Three elements of Gagne’s Instructional Design Theory

CiDT Faculty of Education, Arts and Social Sciences 14 Copyright © Feb 2006 Open University Malaysia Table 7.3: Five kinds of capabilities in the human learner NoCapabilitiesDescription 1.Intellectual skillsPermits the learner to carry out symbol-based procedures. 2.Cognitive strategiesInventing or selecting a particular mental process to solve a problem or accomplish a task. 3.Verbal InformationThe facts and organised “knowledge of the world” stored in the learner’s memory. 4.AttitudesInternal states that influences the personal action choices a learner makes. 5.Motor SkillsPerforming a physical task to some specified standard.

CiDT Faculty of Education, Arts and Social Sciences 15 Copyright © Feb 2006 Open University Malaysia Figure 7.5: External and internal factors affecting the learning event

CiDT Faculty of Education, Arts and Social Sciences 16 Copyright © Feb 2006 Open University Malaysia Figure 7.6: Nine events of instruction

CiDT Faculty of Education, Arts and Social Sciences 17 Copyright © Feb 2006 Open University Malaysia Figure 7.7: Eight basic strategies of elaboration theory Source: strategies/cognitivism ElaborationTheory.htmstrategies/cognitivism ElaborationTheory.htm.

CiDT Faculty of Education, Arts and Social Sciences 18 Copyright © Feb 2006 Open University Malaysia Content/performance matrix (Clark, 1999 in White, 2001) RememberUseFind Fact Concept Process Procedure Principle

CiDT Faculty of Education, Arts and Social Sciences 19 Copyright © Feb 2006 Open University Malaysia Table 7.4: D.H. Jonassen’s ID Theory TheoryDescription and Implications for ID HermeneuticsEmphasises the importance of socio-historical context in mediating the meanings of individuals creating and decoding texts. This means that ID must strive to introduce gaps of understanding which allow the learner to create his/her own meanings. Another implication is that learners need to become aware of their own and others' biases. Exercises must problematise the world of ideas and values, rather than simplifying and codifying it. As Jonassen et al. (1997) express it, "Good learners are naturally sceptical learners" (p.30). A third implication is that other factors outside of the immediate learning situation play a role in the learner's creation of meaning. Designers need to work in a manner that allows the flexibility and openness that will enable these "external" factors a place in the instruction. Finally, the learning programme should facilitate understanding of different time periods, and other cultures, so that learners' understanding is not mediated only by their own unconscious biases. Fuzzy LogicBased on the idea that reality can rarely be represented accurately in a bivalent manner. Rather, it is multivalent, having many varieties and shades which do not have to belong to mutually exclusive sets. In terms of needs assessment and design, the implication of this is that behaviour can only be understood probabilistically, using continua, rather than binary measures. Also, it means that problem areas, such as student perceptions of the efficacy of the educational programme, can be incorporated into the design. ChaosUseful for non-linear, dynamic situations. Chaos theory is also necessary where there is sensitive dependence on initial conditions (i.e. where a very small change in the initial situation leads to great changes later). Chaos theory finds order in the chaos of natural structures through looking for self- similarity and self-organisation, patterns that are repeated at different levels of complexity through a structure. Since the linear, deterministic approach is inapplicable to educational settings, Chaos theory can offer ID some useful alternatives. Firstly, designers need to include metacognitive skills in their designs, to enable learners to deal with the complexity flexibly, rather than hushing it up through simplification, and thereby crippling the learner who will all too soon be faced by aspects of reality that do not fit the simplified scheme. Secondly, ID needs to take account of learners' emotions, and promote self-awareness on this level, not just the cognitive.

CiDT Faculty of Education, Arts and Social Sciences 20 Copyright © Feb 2006 Open University Malaysia Activity 7.4 If you were to design an instructional product (print module, multimedia courseware, learning object, web-based course, audio-tape, etc), which instructional theory/theories will inform your decision?

CiDT Faculty of Education, Arts and Social Sciences 21 Copyright © Feb 2006 Open University Malaysia Table 7.5: List of Sample Tasks And Output According to the 5 Elements in ADDIE Source: San Jose State University, Instructional Technology Programme Sample TasksSample Output Analysis the process of defining what is to be learned  Needs assessment  Problem identification  Task analysis  Learner profile  Description of constraints  Needs, Problem Statement  Task Analysis Design the process of specifying how it is to be learned  Write objectives  Develop test items  Plan instruction  Identify resources  Measurable objectives  Instructional strategy  Prototype specifications Development the process of authoring and producing the materials  Work with producers  Develop workbook, flowchart, program  Storyboard  Script  Exercises  Computer assisted instruction Implementation the process of installing the project in the real world context  Teacher training  Tryout  Student comments, data Evaluation the process of determining the adequacy of the instruction  Record time data  Interpret test results  Survey graduates  Revise activities  Recommendations  Project report  Revised prototype

CiDT Faculty of Education, Arts and Social Sciences 22 Copyright © Feb 2006 Open University Malaysia Figure 7.8: Dick & Carey Model

CiDT Faculty of Education, Arts and Social Sciences 23 Copyright © Feb 2006 Open University Malaysia Figure 7.9: Kemp’s Model Source: Reprinted from Designing effective instruction by Kemp, J.E., Morrison, G.R., & Ross, S. (1994)

CiDT Faculty of Education, Arts and Social Sciences 24 Copyright © Feb 2006 Open University Malaysia Figure 7.10: Leshin, Pollock and Reigeluth Model(1992)

CiDT Faculty of Education, Arts and Social Sciences 25 Copyright © Feb 2006 Open University Malaysia Figure 7.11: Smith & Ragan Model Source: Reprinted from Instructional design by Smith, P.L. & Ragan, T.J. (1992)

CiDT Faculty of Education, Arts and Social Sciences 26 Copyright © Feb 2006 Open University Malaysia Summary Instructional products support the learning process. Design of instruction must be undertaken with suitable attention to the conditions under which learning occurs. The systems approach is used to ascertain the planning of instruction in a systematic manner with attention to the consistency and compatibility of technical knowledge. Robert Glaser and Robert Gagne are two pioneers of Instructional Design movement. Instructional design is an intellectual process requiring higher-level thinking skills. The role of instructional designers may evolve into what is known as knowledge architects. R. M. Gagne, C. M. Reigeluth, M. D. Merrill and D. H. Jonassen can be regarded as some of the greater contributors to instructional design theory. The generic instructional design model ADDIE can be used to guide an instructional designer to create any instructional material. The ARCS Model of Motivational Design is well-known and widely applied model in instructional design. Almost all models share 3 major activities: analysis, strategy development and evaluation.

CiDT Faculty of Education, Arts and Social Sciences 27 Copyright © Feb 2006 Open University Malaysia Instructional Design Conditions of Learning Learning Strategies Instructional Designer Knowledge Architects Taxanomy of Learning Outcomes Elaboration Theory Component Display Theory Hermeneutics Fuzzy Logic Chaos Theory ADDIE

CiDT Faculty of Education, Arts and Social Sciences 28 Copyright © Feb 2006 Open University Malaysia Based on the course materials provided to you for Trends and Issues in Educational Technology, do you think that the instructional design model used is based on any particular model and if yes, which model can you relate this module to? Give reasons when you discuss this online.