Shift in Individual Development Move from identifying training needs to identifying learning needs Move in who identifies needs An interest in technical skills to the development of personal skills, self management and attitudes Greater pressure on development that is future oriented

Theoretical Approaches Behaviourist approach Cognitive approach Social learning Constructivist perspective

Behaviourist Approach Earliest approach Concentrates on changes in observable behaviour Skinner, Watson, and Pavlov Behaviour linked to certain rewards/sanctions

Behaviourist Approach - Problems Trainers are not interested in what is going on in learners’ heads Learners just follow the routine to be learned It is overtly manipulative It is simplistic and limited May produce temporary changes and increases cynicism

Cognitive Approaches Based on information processing perspective More concerned with what’s going on in learner’s head Maps out stages of learning Stresses importance of learner motivation and individual needs, control individual has on learning, etc

Cognitive Approaches - Strengths Stresses importance of learner motivation and needs Recognises control of learner over what is learned Identifies feedback as an important part of learning

Cognitive Approaches - Weaknesses Assumes learning is neutral and unproblematic It ignores emotion

Social Learning Theory Learning is a social event Based on needs of humans to fit in with others Uses role models, mentors and peer support

Social Learning Theory - Disadvantages Ignores the role of choice for the individual It is based to an extent on a masquerade

Constructivist Perspectives Recognises that learning is very personal and threatening process Development of the information processing perspective Does not regard learning as a neutral process Perception of our experiences that count Information and potential learning need to fit with meaning structures

The Learning Cycle Figure 18.1  The learning cycle

Honey & Mumford Activists Reflectors Theorists Pragmatists

Planned & Emergent Learning Table 18.1  Planned and emergent learning Source: Adapted from D. Megginson (1994) ‘Planned and emergent learning: A framework and a method’, Executive Development, Vol. 7, No. 6, pp. 29–32.

Learning Curves Figure 18.2  The reality of learning progress

A Systematic Model of Learning & Training Figure 18.3  A systematic model of learning and training

Analysing Needs Problem centred approach Profile comparison profile approach

Problem Centred Approach Focuses on performance problems Explores whether problems are due to lack of skills

Profile Comparison Approach Takes a much broader view More useful when someone is new to a job

Off-Job Methods of Learning & Development Educational courses In-house courses Consultancy courses Outdoor type courses

Off the Job Methods – Transfer of Learning Developing goals/plans for implementing new skills Reviewing materials immediately after the programme Report to peers/supervisors on learning Include development goals in performance reviews

Learning on the Job Manager coaching and teaching Mentoring Peer relationships Action learning Self development Self development groups Learning logs Learning contracts

Learning Contracts Contents An overall development goal Specific objectives in terms of skills and knowledge Activities to be undertaken Resources required Method of assessment of learning

Open, Distance, and E-learning CIPD 2003 research – One of the most significant changes in training over the last five years is the increased use of e-learning High investment required for e-learning but cost effective in the long run providing speedy and flexible training

Evaluation of Training & Development Evaluating the training – post course questionnaire Evaluating the learning – how trainees now behave Evaluating changes in job performance Evaluating changes in organisational performance Evaluating changes in wider contribution organisation now makes (Hamblin, 1974)

Kilpatrick’s Evaluation Reaction level Learning level Behaviour Results (Kilpatrick, 1959)

Summary (1 of 2) There are four perspectives on learning Emphasis moved from training to learning Individuals are taking ownership of their own learning needs Learners need to understand the nature of learning and own strengths and weaknesses

Summary (2 of 2) Emphasis on formal development programmes is declining Upsurge in interest in e-learning Evaluation of development is critical