Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. An Age of Anxiety 1

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. “The lost generation” (Gertrude Stein) Disillusionment after WW I Pessimism over idea of human progress Spengler, Decline of the West ERA OF INNOVATION 2

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. GERTRUDE STEIN Portrait of Gertrude Stein by Pablo Picasso, 1906 An American writer and catalyst in the development of modern art and literature, who spent most of her life in France. “All of you young people who served in the war, you are all a lost generation.”

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. THE LOST GENERATION The "Lost Generation" were said to be disillusioned by the large number of casualties of the First World War, cynical of the Victorian notions of morality and propriety of their elders and ambivalent about Victorian gender ideals. The writers of this period included Ernest Hemingway, F. Scott Fitzgerald and T.S. Eliot.

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. ERNEST HEMINGWAY An American novelist, short-story writer, and journalist. Wrote The Sun Also Rises which reflected a generation that had lost its moral grounding during the war.

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. F. SCOTT FITZGERALD Francis Scott Key Fitzgerald was an Irish American novelist and short story writer. Wrote The Great Gatsby reflected a generation that had lost its moral grounding during the war.

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. T.S. ELIOT Thomas Stearns Eliot was an American poet, dramatist and literary critic. He received the Nobel Prize for Literature in In his poem The Wasteland, Eliot expressed the negative outlook of the postwar years by describing a world without faith, where moral and spiritual values could not be restored.

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. FRANZ KAFKA Franz Kafka, a middle-class Jew based in Prague, was one of the major German- language fiction writers of the 20th century. Kafka used surrealism in his work, which brings conscious and unconscious ideas together to portray life in a dreamlike way.

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. “Weakness” of democracy Religion discredited Friedrich Nietzsche ( ) Existentialism Formative years of Jean-Paul Sartre ( ), Albert Camus ( ) LOSS OF A MORAL COMPASS 9

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. Albert Einstein ( ) Theory of Special Relativity Neither time nor space absolute values, vary with observer Werner Heisenberg ( ) The Uncertainty Principle Concepts extended to humanities, social sciences RELATIVISM IN THE PHYSICAL WORLD 10

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. Sigmund Freud ( ) The life of the subconscious mind Repression of sexual desires, fears Interpretation of Dreams Free Association Application to mythology, religion, literature, art, etc. THE SOUL EXPLAINED? 11

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. Photography makes realism irrelevant Art as creation, not reproduction Retreat to abstraction Pablo Picasso ( ) Influence of non-western styles RETREAT FROM REALISM IN ART 12

13 Pablo Picasso’s Guernica, 1937

14 Otto Dix,The Seven Deadly Sins, It was created immediately after the Nazis had Dix removed from his teaching position at the Dresden Art Academy. The figures are Avarice (an old, bent over hag clutching at money), Envy (who rides the back of Avarice), Sloth (the figure in the skeleton costume who holds the scythe, and whose legs and arms form a rough swastika), Lust (who dances in a lascivious way behind Death, Anger (the horned Demon behind Death), Pride (the enormous head behind the scythe, whose ears are plugged and who has an anus for a mouth), and Gluttony (represented by the figure in the uppermost right corner who wears a cooking pot on his head).

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. The Bauhaus Director: Walter Gropius ( ) Form follows function Square, lifeless, but efficient Skyscrapers “Glass boxes” “International Style” Loved by business, government MECHANIZATION OF ARCHITECTURE 15

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. Austria/Germany borrow money from USA to pay war debts to France and England France, England pay debts owed to USA for WWI System dependent on flow of cash from USA Investors begin to pull out in 1928 EUROPEAN ORIGINS OF THE GREAT DEPRESSION 16

The Great Depression [ ] Paris in 1930 London in 1930

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. MAIN REASON FOR THE DEPRESSION WERE: AT DEPRESSION - WHY? Less demand for raw materials – With the onset of the war, demand for resources soared. After the war, much of the industry built on that demand was now gone. Overproduction of manufactured goods – Factories kept producing goods, despite that demand had dropped off with the stock market crash of 1929, leaving a surplus of manufactured goods with no one to buy. The stock market crash – When brokers began to call in loans on purchases largely bought on loan prior to the crash, investors could not pay them, leading to financial panic and the eventual crash.

German Unemployment:

The German Mark

Decrease in World Trade:

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. THE GREAT DEPRESSION - RESULTS During the depression, banks and businesses closed, putting millions out of work and drastically decreasing production of goods. As the depression continued, many lost faith in democracy and capitalism. Extreme ideas began to gain value. Communists celebrated what they saw as the failure of capitalism. Strong leaders supported intense nationalism, militarism, and a return to authoritarian rule. Strong leaders in Italy and Germany high unemployment and severe economic problems helped paved the way for totalitarian dictatorships.

German Election Results in 1933 Because of the success of the Nazi Party in the poll, its leader and Chancellor of Germany, Adolf Hitler, was able to pass the Enabling Act, which effectively gave him the power of a dictator.

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. Single-export countries devastated by declines due to new technology Reclaimed rubber destroys rubber-based economies of Dutch East Indies, Malaysia, Ceylon NEW TECHNOLOGIES AND THE GREAT DEPRESSION 24

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. Overproduction in 1920s Strongest harvests in 1925, 1929 Wheat lowest price in 400 years Farm income drops Less demand for manufactured goods Inventory surpluses The Dust Bowl, mid-late 30s AGRICULTURAL SURPLUSES AND THE GREAT DEPRESSION 25

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. Stock purchases on margin (3%) Hints of slowdown in Europe Investors begin to sell Snowball effect Life savings lost Black Thursday 11 Suicides BLACK THURSDAY (OCTOBER 24, 1929) 26

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. Inventory surplus leads to layoffs Layoffs lead to decreased demand, businesses fail 1932 industrial production ½ of 1929 levels 44% of US banks out of business Deposits lost US ECONOMIC COLLAPSE 27

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. Hardest hit: countries dependent on export of manufactured goods for essentials Japan Single-export countries South America WORLD ECONOMIC COLLAPSE 28

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. Brazil Surplus of coffee beans set on fire, used to build highways USA: “planned scarcity” Vegetables, fruits and animals destroyed Steinbeck’s The Grapes of Wrath INITIAL GOVERNMENT ATTEMPTS TO INCREASE DEMAND 29

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. Laissez-faire, “planned scarcity” approaches fail John Maynard Keynes, economist Stimulate economy by lowering interest rates Encouraging investment, employment The New Deal of Franklin Delano Roosevelt WWII Spending NEW US STRATEGIES 30

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. FRANKLIN DELANO ROOSEVELT 31

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. Bloody Sunday January 22, 1905 The Czar’s Winter Palace in St. Petersburg

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. GEORGI GAPON The strikers were led by a Russian Orthodox priest and a popular working class leader named Georgi Gapon and hundreds were killed. This happened because Nicholas II feared an uprising and called in the soldiers. Destroying any of the faith and trust the people had in the czar, this led to the Revolution of 1905, a failed attempt to overthrow the czar, and a thousand year old legacy of autocracy. Father Georgi Gapon

34 The Revolution Spreads

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. Russian Cossacks Slaughter The People in Odessa Anti-Jewish Attacks: Pogroms

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. Results

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. 1. The Tsar’s October Manifesto October 30, 1905

38 2. The Opening of the Duma: Possible Reforms? The czar continued to exercise veto power over the Duma, and he dissolved and reformed it several times.

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. THE MARCH REVOLUTION By the spring of 1917, the Russian people had lost faith in their government, led by Czar Nicholas II. The elected legislative body, the Duma, had little power. Although serfdom had been abolished in 1861, debts, rents, and taxes kept most Russian peasants poor. Strikes and demonstrations broke out in Petrograd, the then capital (this city would become St. Petersburg). The last known photograph of Nicholas II, taken after his abdication in March 1917

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. RASPUTIN “THE MAD MONK” A Russian mystic who is perceived as having influenced the later days of the Russian Tsar Nicholas II, his wife the Tsaritsa Alexandra, and their only son the Tsarevich Alexei.

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. THE MARCH 1917 REVOLUTION With the overthrow of the czar a temporary government was established. This provisional government did very little to quell the demands of the middle class workers who had revolted against the czar. Most of these workers were socialists who demanded political and economic equality throughout Russia. They formed soviets, or councils of workers and soldiers in Russian cities. Two factions of the soviets fought for power. The moderate Mensheviks and the more radical Bolsheviks.

42 The leader of the Bolsheviks, Vladimir Lenin, mug shot, Dec. 1895

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. FOUNDER OF BOLSHEVISM: VLADIMIR LENIN Workers formed soviets, or councils of workers and soldiers in Russian cities. Lenin demanded that all power be turned over to the soviets and the Bolshevik slogan was “peace, bread and land.” This appealed to the war-weary and hungry Russian people. Lenin was a Marxist. Lenin’s version of Marxism formed the basis of communism.

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. October/November 1917 Soviets take over Disband Constituent Assembly “All Power to the Soviets!” THE BOLSHEVIK REVOLUTION 44

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. LEON TROTSKY Many in Russia were still loyal to the czar. Soon after the October Revolution broke out, the czar’s supporters, known as the Whites, and the Communist forces known as the Red Army began to clash. To ensure that the czar could not come into power, Lenin executed the imprisoned czar and his family. The Allies contributed arms, money and even troops to the White forces until the Whites defeat in 1921 by the Communists. Red Army vs. The Whites

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. Russian Civil War White Army propaganda poster depicting Trotsky as a devil.

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. LENIN’S “CHANGE” Lenin’s government had a constitution and an elected legislature. But, the Communist Party, not the people had the real power. All opposition parties were banned and only Communist Party members could run for office. The revolution had led to economic catastrophe which in 1921 led to Lenin adopting the New Economic Policy. Under this plan, the government controlled banks, large industry and foreign trade. Some small private businesses were allowed to help stimulate the economy. In 1922 the Communists renamed the land they ruled the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the USSR, or the Soviet Union.

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. Rapid collectivization Confiscations Massively unpopular, Lenin backtracks in 1921 New Economic Policy (NEP) partial privatization of the economy WAR COMMUNISM,

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. Promotion of Agriculture Promotion of Industry “Kulaks” and speculation “one step backward, two steps forward” NEW ECONOMIC POLICY (NEP) 49

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. Lenin’s Stroke (1922) and death (1924) Triumvirate: Stalin Bukharin Trotsky LENIN’S DEATH 50

51 Since 1924, Lenin’s body ahs been on displayed at the Lenin Mausoleum.

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. JOSEPH STALIN When Lenin died in 1924, a power struggle took place within the Communist Party. The main rivals for power were Leon Trotsky and Joseph Stalin. Stalin was the leader of the Communist Party. Stalin emerged as the leader by arguing that after socialism succeeded in Soviet Union, revolution would spread throughout the world.

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. Yosef Vissarionovich Dzugashvili Nom de guerre: “Man of Steel,” Georgian Mother’s influence leads to Orthodox seminary education Leads Soviet Union by 1928 JOSEPH STALIN ( ) 53

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. Mechanics of a purge “confession” the show-trial punishment Massive scope: 8 million Soviet citizens in labor camps by 1939 Euphemisms: “wreckers, saboteurs” THE PURGES 54

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. Internal exile The possibility of escape Forced labor Living conditions Trial and re-trial LIFE IN THE GULAG 55

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. The “Great Leap Forward” Socialism in One Country Massive collectivization of agriculture STALIN AND INDUSTRIALIZATION 56

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. A Terror-Famine? Ukrainians Don Region De-kulakization The Law of Socialist Property “When you cut down a forest, splinters will fly” THE UKRAINIAN FAMINE OF

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. STALIN’S ECONOMY Stalin established a command economy, in which government officials made all basic decisions. Under Stalin, the government owned all factories, businesses and farms. In 1928, Stalin launched the first of his five year plans of industrialization. Consumer goods were ignored with all of the focus being on heavy industry. In the 1930’s, oil, coal, steel, mining and military goods increased, while most Russians already impoverished lives got worse. Consumer goods that were being produced were of cheap quality and hard to come by. Most were starving.

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. From “fasces,” Roman symbol of authority Axe surrounded by wooden rods Originates with Benito Mussolini Influenced Europe, Asia, Latin America THE GROWTH OF EUROPEAN FASCISM 59

Italian Fasces

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. 1.Primacy of state over individual 2.Distrust of democracy: the Führerprinzip 3.Hostility to Communism 4.Chauvinistic 5.Militaristic FASCISM: COMMON ELEMENTS 61

62 Fascism Censorship and government control of news Extreme nationalism State control of economy Strict Discipline Rule by dictator Blind Loyalty to Leader Use of violence and terror Strong military

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. Poor showing of post-WWI Italian government Public disappointed with weak territorial gains Economic and social turmoil Mussolini, former newspaper editor, electoral successes in 1921 March on Rome October, King Emmanuel III offers him office of prime minister 1926 seizes power as Il Duce, “the leader” FASCISM IN ITALY 63

Benito Mussolini [ ]

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. BENITO MUSSOLINI As an extreme nationalist, when Mussolini returned from World War I, he organized his own political party known as the Fascist party and called its doctrine fascism. Fascism is the rule of a people by dictatorial government that is nationalistic and imperialistic. While communism appealed to workers and promised a society without social classes, fascism appealed to the upper and middle classes, promising to preserve existing social classes and the ownership of private property.

Fascist Youth

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. THE BLACK SHIRTS Inspired by Giuseppe Garibaldi’s Redshirts Used by the Fascists to conduct a violent campaign against strikers, Communist supporters and any other opponents.

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. WEIMAR REPUBLIC After World War I, the Kaiser abdicated (Wilhelm II) the throne and the Weimar Republic was founded. The German people were unhappy with the Weimar republic because they supported the signing of the Treaty of Versailles, which made the Weimar Republic seem as traitors to Germany. Inflation 1923–24: a woman feeds her tiled stove with money. At the time, burning money was less expensive than buying firewood.

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display becomes Chairman of the National Socialist German Workers’ Party (Nazis) Attempts to overthrow government in 1923 Beer Hall Putsch Writes autobiography Mein Kampf in jail, massively popular ADOLF HITLER ( ) AND THE NAZI PARTY 69

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. THE NAZI PARTY Promising to protect Germany from communism, the Nazi Party was extremely nationalistic, and anti- Semitic, attracting support from wealthy business leaders and landowners. In 1925, the Nazi Party had just 25,000 members. By 1929, the party had grown to 180,000 members.

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. THE THIRD REICH Reminding his people of their countries former glory, Hitler began to refer to his rule as the Third Reich. The first would have been the Holy Roman Empire, followed by the German Empire of the Hohenzollerns. Hitler claimed the Third Reich would last 1000 years. Large military parades were prominent in the Nazi era.

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. Capitalizes on public discontent with post-war era War guilt clause Reparation payments Inability of major parties to come to consensus Anti-semitism ADOLF HITLER ( ) AND THE NAZI PARTY 72

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. Nazis become single largest party in parliament, Weak president Paul von Hindenburg ( ) appoints Hitler as Chancellor Suppresses opposition, abrogates constitutional and civil rights Makes the Nazis the sole legal party Destroys trade unions Purges judiciary, civil service of perceived enemies CONSOLIDATION OF POWER 73

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. Theories of racial superiority, racial purity Policies of eugenics Compulsory sterilization of 30,000 Germans Abortions illegal for healthy Germans, mandatory for “hereditary ill” and “racial aliens” “Euthanasia” program kills 200,000 people with physical or mental handicaps between Precursors to massacres of Jews, gypsies THE RACIAL STATE 74

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. Influence of 19 th -century racism 1935 Nuremburg laws define Jew on racial basis Prohibits marriages between Jews and non-Jews Removal of Jews from civil service, schools Liquidation of Jewish-owned businesses or purchase by non-Jews Kristallnacht: major country-wide pogrom on Jews, November 9- 10, 1938 “Night of broken glass” ANTI-SEMITISM 75

76

Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display. ROME-BERLIN AXIS