Age of Mass Politics Chapter 22-23

Overview  Ordinary people felt increasing loyalty to their governments  By 1914 universal male suffrage was the rule  Female suffrage emerged after WWI  Politicians and parties in national gov’t represented the people more responsibly  Increased literacy  Governments often led by conservatives who manipulated nationalism

New Institutions  Trade Unions  Became fully legal in Britain in 1871; France in 1884; Germany 1890  Minimal political influence  Focused on organizing skilled workers and improvement of wages and working conditions  Later industrial unions for unskilled labor  Opposed by employers  Long strikes  Most of Europe remained non-union  But a new form of collective association to confront economic difficulties and improve security

New Institutions  Democracy and Political Parties  Broad based electoral systems by late 19 th century (except Russia)  Britain voting reform act in 1867 and 1884  Germany and Bismarck universal male suffrage in 1871  French Chamber of Deputies democratically elected  Meant government could no longer ignore workers and unhappy citizens  Organization of Political Parties  Vied for members

German Empire  Government structure  Federal union of Prussia and 24 smaller German states  Kaiser Wilhelm I held ultimate power  Otto von Bismarck served as chancellor  Bicameral legislature: Reichstag  Bundestag  Bundesrat  Multi-party system  Conservatives represented the Junkers of Prussia  Center Party (Catholic)  Social Democratic Party  Middle-class left out of politics during this era

German Empire  Germany under Bismarck  Integrated political and economic structure  Unified monetary system  Established Imperial Bank  Developed universal German civil and criminal codes  Established compulsory military service  Kulturkampf (“Struggle for civilization”)  Bismarck sought to limit influence of Catholic Center Party; strong in the south (most northern German states were Protestant)  Bismarck instituted a set of sweeping reforms to minimize threat from the left

Germany: Social Democrats and Revisionism  German Social Democratic Party (SDP) 1875  Policy of permanent hostility to non-socialist governments  Organizational success kept Marxism alive  Founding fathers: Ferdinand Lasalle (reform), Wilhelm Liebknecht, and August Bebel (revolution)  Bismarck and the SPD  12 years of persecution; anti-socialist legislation  Legislation proved counter productive  Social welfare legislation  1883: health insurance measure  1884: accident insurance  1889: retirement and disability pensions  Paternalistic and conservative alternative to socialism  Social security program; first industrial nation to have this kind of program

Germany: Social Democrats and Revisionism  William II  Emperor William II allowed antisocialist legislation to expire  Opposed Bismarck’s move to outlaw the SPD  Forced him to resign to gain support of workers  Socialists next move  Erfurt Program predicted doom of capitalism and necessity of socialist ownership of the means of production  Intended to use reform not revolution  Immediate task was to improve lives of workers rather than overthrow government  SPD worked within the system; became largest party in the Reichstag by 1912

Third French Republic  Established in 1875  Largely dominated by the bourgeoisie  Constitution provided for a republic  Chamber of Deputies (elected)  President was weak  Senate indirectly elected  Republican party  Led by Leon Gambetta  Established parliamentary supremacy  Reforms  Legalized trade unions  Established secular education  Multi-party system; ever-shifting political coalitions  Challenge from conservatives  Boulanger Crisis ( )  Panama scandal (1892)  Dreyfus Affair (1894)

France: Opportunism Rejected  Less united socialist party  Two major factions  Jaurès  Socialists should cooperate with middle-class Radical ministries  Guesde  Could not support bourgeois cabinet  Dryfuss Affair  1899 in effort to unite supporters of Dryfuss, Prime Minister Renè Waldeck- Rousseau appointed socialist Alexander Millerand to cabinet  French labor movement uninterested in parties and socialism  Main labor union Confédération Générale du Travail 1895  Rival to socialist parties; embraced doctrine of Georges Sorel in Reflections on Violence (1908)  General strike as tool to unite workers and gain them power  Increase in strikes met with military suppression  Ultimately Juarès gained seats in Chamber of Deputies from 1905 to 1914  Third Republic enjoyed vast support of the French People

Great Britain  realignment of political parties  Lord Palmerston ( )  Whig prime minister and dominant political figure  Tory Party transformed to Conservative Party  Benjamin Disraeli ( )  Whig party transformed to Liberal Party  William Gladstone ( )  Other major contributor John Bright  Democratic expansion under Disraeli and Gladstone

Great Britain  Benjamin Disraeli  Argued for aggressive foreign policy, expansion of British Empire, and reluctant support of democratic reforms  Influenced by John Stuart Mill  Reform Bill of 1867  “leap in the dark”  Appeal to working people  Expanded Reform Bill of 1832  Redistributed seats for more even representation in House of Commons  Almost universal suffrage (males over 21)  Reduced gov’t regulation of trade unions in 1875  Created regulations for improved sanitation

Great Britain  William Gladstone  Most important liberal figure in 19 th century England  Supported Irish Home Rule, fiscal policy, free trade, extension of democratic principles, opposed imperialism  Abolished compulsory taxes to support Church of England  Australian Ballot Act 1872  secret ballot  Civil service reform 1870  Competitive examination for gov’t positions  Reform Act of 1884 (Representation of the People Act)  Votes for agricultural workers

Great Britain  Fabianism and Early Welfare Programs  “New Unionism”  Trade unions grew  Supported Liberal Party candidates  Organized unskilled laborers  The Labour Party 1901  1906 sent 29 members to Parliament  Still a rise in strikes as unions become more militant  More government intervention  The Fabian Society  Most influential socialist group in England  Took its name from Q. Fabius Maximus, Roman general  Gradualistic approach to reform  Leading members: Sidney and Beatrice Webb, H.G. Wells, Graham Wallas, and George Bernard Shaw  Wanted to educate public to socialist reform; gas-and- water socialism

Great Britain  British government, Liberal and Conservative parties responded slowly  1903 Joseph Chamberlain  finance social reform through higher import duties  Split the conservative party  Liberal Reforms  restored the protection of labor unions  Right to strike  1909 broad program of social legislation  Established labor exchanges, regulated certain trades and passed National Insurance Act of 1911  Unemployment benefits and health care  Compulsory school attendance  Conflict between House of Commons and House of Lords  Over financing new programs  Increased tax on wealthy to help fund the welfare state  Parliament Act of 1911  Most significant legislation of Liberal party rule  allowed Commons to override veto of Lords  State was taking expanded role in lives of citizens  Representation of the People Act 1918  Women over 30 gained suffrage  Property qualifications completely eliminated

Women’s Rights and Suffrage in England  Initially sought to amend marriage and property laws  By 1890s, women’s rights activists realized that suffrage was the key to remedying other problems  Suffragettes came largely from middle class  Benefitted from education  Free time to become activists  Working-class women and socialists worked independently

Women’s Rights and Suffrage in England  Millicent Garrett Fawcett ( )  Leader of National Union of Women’s Suffrage Societies (NUWSS)  Fought for suffrage and helped grow the movement  Knighted in 1924  Emmeline Pankhurst  Leader of militant suffragettes  Along with her daughter, founded the Women’s social and Political Union (WSPU)  1907 began violent activities such as destroying railroad stations, works of art and store windows, and chaining themselves to gate in front of Parliament  Organized parades and demonstrations  Arrested for their activities  Representation of the People Act 1918  Result of women’s critical contributions to the war effort; vote for women over 30  Reform Act of 1928  Suffrage for women over 21

The Irish Question  Young Ireland movement 1848  Ulster (Protestant counties in northern Ireland)  Opposed Irish Home Rule  Raised 100,000 armed volunteers by 1913  Supported by British public opinion  1914 Irish Home Rule Act passed  1916 Easter Rebellion  1922 Ireland gained independence  Northern Ireland remained part of British Empire

The “Eastern Question” 1870’s  The Ottoman Empire  The “Sick Man of Europe”  Constant state of crisis in the Balkans  Question of who would control the region  Russia or Austro-Hungarian Empire  Pan-Slavism  Idea of uniting all Slave in Europe under one gov’t (Russia)  Britain refused to accept Russian control and sent Royal Navy to help Turks  “jingoism”  Bismarck offered to mediate crisis

The “Eastern Question” 1870’s  Congress of Berlin 1878  Russia gained little despite defeating the Turks  Provisions  Recognition of Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro as independent states  Establishment of autonomous principality of Bulgaria  Austrian acquisition of Bosnia and Herzegovina  Transfer of Cyprus to Great Britain  Close to Suez Canal  Rise in hostility from Russia toward Germany  New system of alliances formed

Socialist Movements  Negative response to industrialism and nationalism  Rise of socialist party  Problems were transnational; unite working class internationally  Main goal: advancer the cause of the proletariat throughout Europe  Reform or Revolution?  Shaped socialist thought, party programs and political behavior, and influenced the larger political arena

Karl Marx and the First International  1864 foundation of first International Working Men’s Association (known as the First International)  Marx was principal organizer  Socialists, anarchists, and Polish nationalists  Marx approved reform efforts  In private he criticized reform activity  Paris Commune  Marx called a genuine proletarian uprising  Promoted anti-socialist legislation and sentiment  First International moved headquarters to U.S. in 1873 and was disbanded in 1876

Karl Marx and the First International  Marxism emerged as the most important strand of socialism  Scientific characteristic made it appealing  Deeply impressed German socialists; most powerful party in Europe  Also involved the influence of non-Marxist socialists in Great Britain

Revisionism  Workers gained right to vote and participate politically  Attention to elections rather than revolutions  Standard of living rose  Government acceptance of labor unions  Focus on bread-and-butter issues  Wages, hours, working conditions  Genuine collective bargaining  Eduard Bernstein: Evolutionary Socialism 1899  Most prominent socialist revisionist  Argued Marx’s predictions of ever-greater poverty for workers and concentration of wealth in fewer hands was proven false

Anarchists  Spin off from mainstream socialist movement  Sought to destroy centralized state  Mikhail Bakunin  Russian nobleman, leading anarchist  Strongest in Spain and Italy  Political assassinations  Alexander II of Russia 1881  King Umberto I of Italy 1900  President William McKinley of U.S. 1901

Russia  Defeat in Crimean War marked turning point  Lacked sizable middle class  Had to modernize or would remain vulnerable militarily and economically  Alexander II ( )  Perhaps most liberal ruler prior to 20 th century  Serfdom had slowed modernization  Emancipation Act 1861  Peasants no longer dependent on lord; free to move and change occupations; could enter contracts and own property  Mirs  Communes which were highly regulated  Collective ownership and responsibility  Zemstvos  Established 1864; assemblies that administered local areas  Significant step to popular participation  Other reforms  Judiciary improved  Censorship relaxed (but not removed)  Education liberalized

Russia  Railroad construction  Between 1860 and 1880 mileage grew from 1,250 to 15,500  Enabled export of grain and ability to earn profits for further industrialization  Stimulated domestic manufacturing  Strengthened Russia’s military

Russia  Critics  Alexander turned increasingly traditional in values  Radical populist movement emerged; sought utopian agrarian order  Intelligensia  Nihilism  Alexander II assassinated in 1881 by radicals

Russia  Alexander III ( )  “Autocracy, Orthodoxy, and Russification (nationalism)”  Encouraged anti-semitism (pogroms)  Theodor Herzl 1897  Launched the Zionist movement  Fought to establish a Jewish state in Palestine

Russia  Nicholas II  Russo-Japanese War ( )  Revolution of 1905  Poor economy and strains of war led peasants and middle class to demand reforms  Bloody Sunday, Jan 1905  200,000 worker/peasants marched peacefully to “Winter Palace”  Czar not in town  Army fired on marchers  General Strike paralyzed Russia; czar was forced to make concessions  Duma: Assembly created as an advisory body to Czar  Granted freedom of speech, assembly, and press  Czar retained absolute veto  Revolutionaries divided; Duma had no real influence  Propertied classes benefited at expense of workers, peasants, and national minorities  Mild economic recover  Peter Stolypin: pushed agrarian reforms  Gregorii Rasputin: caused widespread doubts about czar’s ability to lead  Poor showing in WWI led directly to Russian Revolution