Chapter 9 Chapter 9 The Oceans Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

FIGURE 9.1 Major currents in the surface waters of the world’s oceans. Source: From Knauss (1978). Used with permission of Dr. John Knauss. 2

Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. FIGURE 9.2 Deployment of a RAFOS float in the North Atlantic Ocean. Photograph courtesy of Susan Lozier, Duke University. 3

Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. FIGURE 9.3 The global ocean thermohaline circulation forms a conveyor that moves water among the various ocean basins in surface (red) and deep-water (blue) currents. Source: From Lozier (2010). Used with permission of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. 4

Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. FIGURE 9.4 Penetration of bomb-derived tritium ( 3 H 2 O) into the North Atlantic Ocean. Data are expressed as the ratio of 3 H/H × for samples collected in Source: From Ostlund (1983). 5

Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. FIGURE 9.5 Salinity of the surface waters of the world's oceans. Source: From NASA Aquarius ( 6

Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. FIGURE 9.6 Mean residence time of elements in seawater as a function of their concentration in seawater divided by their mean concentration in the Earth's crust—with high values of the index indicating elements that are very soluble. Source: From Whitfield and Turner (1979). Reprinted with permission from Nature, copyright 1979 Macmillan Magazines Limited. 7

Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. FIGURE 9.7 Net primary productivity as a function of surface chlorophyll in waters of coastal California. Source: From Eppley et al. (1985), Journal of Plankton Research. Reprinted by permission of Oxford University Press. 8

Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. FIGURE 9.8 Global map of marine NPP. Source: From Behrenfeld et al. (2006). 9

Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. FIGURE 9.9 Organic carbon burial efficiency versus the time of its exposure to O 2 in sediments of the eastern North Pacific Ocean. Source: From Hartnett et al. (1998). 10

Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. FIGURE 9.10 Pore water distribution of Mn 2 +, Fe 2 +, and H 2 S in coastal sediments of Denmark, showing the approximate depth of Mn-reduction, Fe-reduction, and SO 4 -reduction, respectively. Source: From Thamdrup et al. (1994). 11

Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. FIGURE 9.11 Burial of organic carbon in marine sediments as a function of the overall rate of sedimentation. Source: From Berner and Canfield (1989). Reprinted by permission of American Journal of Science. 12

Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. FIGURE 9.12 Pyrite sulfur content in marine sediments as a function of their organic carbon content. Source: From Berner (1984). 13

Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. FIGURE 9.13 Methane volatilized from a frozen clathrate can be burned at the Earth's surface. Source: Photo by Gary Klinkhammer, courtesy of NASA. 14

Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. FIGURE 9.14 Calcite saturation depth in the world's oceans. Source: Feely et al. (2004). Used with permission of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. 15

Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. FIGURE 9.15 Dissolved carbon dioxide in seawater (dissolved inorganic carbon + total alkalinity) and pCO 2 in Earth's atmosphere at Mauna Loa, Hawaii, since Source: From Dore et al. (2009). Used with permission of the National Academy of Sciences. 16

Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. FIGURE 9.16 The marine biotic pump, showing the formation of organic matter (POC) and carbonate keletons in the surface ocean and their downward transport and the downwelling of DOC and bicarbonate to the deep ocean. 17

Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. FIGURE 9.17 A box-diffusion model for the oceans, separating the surface oceans into cold polar waters and warmer waters at other latitudes. Cold polar waters mix with deeper waters as a result of downwelling. Other exchanges are by diffusion. Source: From Emanuel et al. (1985a). 18

Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. FIGURE 9.18 Vertical distribution of phosphate and nitrate in the world's oceans. Source: From Svedrup et al. (1942). 19

Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. FIGURE 9.19 Phosphorus in the Atlantic Ocean, showing the increase in its concentration in deep waters as they travel from north to south. Source: From Sarmiento and Gruber (2006). Used with permission of Princeton University Press. 20

Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. FIGURE 9.20 Links between the nitrogen and the carbon cycles in the surface ocean. Nitrogen regenerated in the surface waters is largely assimilated by phytoplankton as NH 4, while that diffusing and mixing up from the deep ocean is NO 3. When organic matter sinking to the deep ocean is mineralized, its nitrogen content is initially released as NH 4 and converted to nitrate by nitrifying bacteria. “New production” can be estimated as the fraction of net primary production that is derived from nitrate from rivers, atmospheric deposition, nitrogen fixation, and upwelling from the deep sea. Source: From Jahnke (1990). 21

Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. FIGURE 9.21 Nitrogen budget for the world's oceans, showing major fluxes in units of gN/yr. From an original conception by Wollast (1981), but with newer data added for atmospheric deposition (Duce et al. 2008), nitrogen fixation (Deutsch et al. 2007), riverflow (Galloway et al. 2004), denitrification (Brandes and Devol 2002), and nutrient regeneration in surface waters (compare Table 9.3). The global values have been rounded. 22

Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. FIGURE 9.22 A phosphorus budget for the world's oceans, with important fluxes shown in units of g P/yr. From an original conception by Wollast (1981), but with newer data added for dust inputs (Graham and Duce 1979), riverflow (Meybeck 1982), sedimentary preservation (Wallman 2010), and nutrient regeneration in surface waters (compare Table 9.3). The global values have been rounded. 23

Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. FIGURE 9.23 Flux of phosphorus from sediments to the water column as a function of the decomposition of organic carbon in areas of high and low O 2 in the overlying waters. Source: From Ingall and Jahnke (1997). 24

Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. FIGURE 9.24 Estimated increase in the sedimentation of organic carbon that might be caused by human additions of nitrogen to the world's oceans by precipitation. Updated from an original conception by Peterson and Melillo (1985), based on current anthropogenic atmospheric inputs of Duce et al. (2008). 25

Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. FIGURE 9.25 The ratio between the concentration of an element in sinking fecal pellets (μg/kg) and its concentration in seawater (μg/l), plotted as a function of its mean residence time in the ocean. Source: From Cherry et al. (1978). Reprinted with permission from Nature, copyright 1978 Macmillan Magazines Limited. 26

Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. FIGURE 9.26 Vertical distribution of Fe, NO 3, and O 2 in the central North Pacific Ocean. Source: From Martin et al. (1989). 27

Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. FIGURE 9.27 Depth distribution of nitrate, phosphate, and cadmium in the coastal waters of California. Source: From Bruland et al. (1978b). 28

Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. FIGURE 9.28 Medusa jellyfish at a hydrothermal vent at 2850-m depth on the East Pacific Rise, photographed from the ROV Jason II. Photo courtesy of Emily M. Klein, chief scientist, Duke University. 29

Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. FIGURE 9.29 Sulfur budget for the world's oceans, showing important fluxes in units of g S/yr. (See also FIGURE 13.1.) Sources: Riverflux from Meybeck (1979), gaseous output from Lana et al. (2011), hydrothermal flux from Elderfield and Schultz (1996), and pyrite deposition from Berner (1982). ` 30

Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. FIGURE 9.30 Mean annual dimethylsulfide concentration in the surface ocean (nM), showing zones of high concentrations in the high-latitude oceans. Source: Redrawn from Lana et al. (2011). Used with permission of the American Geophysical Union. All rights reserved. 31

Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. FIGURE 9.31 Changes in the δ 18 O in sedimentary carbonates of the Caribbean Sea during 300,000 years. Enrichment of δ 18 O during the last glacial epoch (20,000 years ago) is associated with lower sea levels and a greater proportion of in seawater. Source: From Broecker (1973). 32

Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. TABLE 9.1 Major Ion Composition of Seawater, Showing Relationships to Total Chloride and Mean Residence Times for the Elements with Respect to Riverwater Inputs 33

Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. TABLE 9.2 Estimates of Total Marine Primary Productivity and the Proportion That Is New Production 34

Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. TABLE 9.3 Calculation of the Sources of Nutrients That Would Sustain a Global Net Primary Productivity of 50 x gC/yr In the Surface Waters of the Oceans 35

Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. TABLE 9.4 Sources of Fe, PO 4, and NO 3 in Surface Waters of the North Pacific Ocean 36