Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity by the Ecosystem Approach

Concepts Biodiversity US public lands Park Management Forest Management Deforestation Establishment and management of nature preserves Ecological restoration

Factors Increasing Biodiversity Middle stage of succession Moderate environmental disturbance Small changes in environmental conditions Physically diverse habitat Evolution

Factors Decreasing Biodiversity Extreme environmental conditions Large environmental disturbance Intense environmental stress Severe shortages of resources Nonnative species introduction Geographic isolation

Human Activities and Biodiversity Human Population Size and resource use Human Activities Agriculture, industry, economic production and consumption, recreation Direct Effects Degradation and destruction of natural ecosystems Alteration of natural chemical cycles and energy flows Changes in number and distribution of species Pollution of air, water, and soil Indirect Effects Climate change Loss of biodiversity

Importance of Biodiversity Intrinsic value Instrumental value Existence value Aesthetic value Bequest value

Solutions for Protecting Biodiversity The Species Approach The Ecosystem Approach Goal Goal Protect species from premature extinction Protect populations of species in their natural habitats Strategies Strategy Identify endangered species Protect their critical habitats Preserve sufficient areas of habitats in different biomes and aquatic systems Tactics Tactics Protect habitat areas through private purchase or government action Eliminate or reduce populations of alien species from protected areas Manage protected areas to sustain native species Restore degraded ecosystems Legally protect endangered species Manage habitat Propagate endangered species in captivity Reintroduce species into suitable habitats

Conservation Biology Multidisciplinary science Emergency response Identify “hot spots” Rapid Assessment Teams Based on Leopold’s ethics

Bioinformatics

US Public Lands Multiple-use lands: Moderately-restricted use lands: National Forests National Resource Lands Moderately-restricted use lands: National Wildlife Refuges Restricted-use lands: National Park System National Wilderness Preservation System

US Public Lands

Geyser and Hot Spring, Yellowstone NP, Wyoming

Old Faithful Geyser Yellowstone National Park Wyoming

Bison in the Geyser Basin

Grand Canyon National Park, Arizona

Entrance to Yosemite Valley, California

St. Mary’s Lake, Glacier NP Montana

Giant Sequoia Trees, Yosemite NP California

Smokey Mountain National Park North Carolina

Acadia National Park, Maine

Managing US Public Land Biodiversity and ecological function No subsidies or tax breaks for use Public should get fair compensation Users held responsible for actions

Managing and Sustaining National Parks Inadequate protection Often too small to sustain biodiversity Invasions by nonnative species Too many human visitors Traffic jams and air pollution Better pay for park staff

Solutions National Parks Integrate plans for managing parks and nearby federal lands Add new parkland near threatened parks Buy private land inside parks Locate visitor paring outside parks and use shuttle buses for entering and touring heavily used parks Increase funds for park maintenance and repairs Survey wildlife in parks Raise entry fees for visitors and use funds for park management and maintenance Limit number of visitors to crowded park rangers Increase number and pay of park rangers Encourage volunteers to give visitor lectures and tours Seek private donations for park maintenance and repairs

Forests Old-growth (frontier) forests Second-growth forests Tree farms/plantation

Managing and Sustaining Forests Ecological Importance of Forests Food webs and energy flow Protect soils from erosion Local and regional climate Numerous habitats and niches Air purification

Clear-Cutting Forests Trade-Offs Clear-Cutting Forests Advantages Disadvantages Higher timber yields Maximum economic return in shortest time Can reforest with genetically improved fast-growing trees Short time to establish new stand of trees Needs less skill and planning Best way to harvest tree plantations Good for tree species needing full or moderate sunlight for growth Reduces biodiversity Disrupts ecosystem processes Destroys and fragments some wildlife habitats Leaves moderate to large openings Increases soil erosion Increases sediment water pollution and flooding when done on steep slopes Eliminates most recreational value for several decades

Managing and Sustaining Forests Economic Importance of Forests Fuelwood Lumber Paper Livestock grazing Mineral extraction and recreation

Forest Management Rotation cycle Even-aged management Uneven-aged management Improved diversity Sustainable production Multiple-use

Rotation Cycles

Roads Lead to Forest Degradation Increased erosion and runoff Habitat fragmentation Pathways for exotic species Accessibility to humans

Harvesting Trees Selective cutting High-grading Shelterwood cutting Seed-tree cutting Clear-cutting Strip cutting

Logging near Baxter State Park, Maine

Clear Cut Forest, Washington State

Shelterwood Cutting

Sustainable Forestry Longer rotations Selective or strip cutting Minimize fragmentation Improved road building techniques Certify sustainable grown

Solutions Sustainable Forestry Grow more timber on long rotations Rely more on selective cutting and strip cutting No clear-cutting, seed-tree, or shelter-wood cutting on steeply sloped land No fragmentation of remaining large blocks of forest Sharply reduce road building into uncut forest areas Leave most standing dead trees and fallen timber for wildlife habitat and nutrient recycling Certify timber grown by sustainable methods Include ecological services of trees and forests in estimating economic value

Insect and Pathogen Threats to U.S. Forests Sudden oak death White pine blister rust Pine shoot beetle

Insect and Pathogen Threats to U.S. Forests Beech bark disease Hemlock woolly adelgid Asian Long Horned Beetle

White pine blister rust Sudden oak death White pine blister rust Pine shoot beetle Beech bark disease Hemlock wooly adelgid

Forest Fires Surface fires Crown fires Fig. 11-15 p. 208

Logging in U.S. National Forests Provides local jobs Provides only 3% of timber Increases environmental damage Hinders recreation income

Logging in U.S. National Forests Trade-Offs Logging in U.S. National Forests Advantages Disadvantages Helps meet country’s timber needs Cut areas grow back Keeps lumber and paper prices down Provides jobs in nearby communities Promotes economic growth in nearby Provides only 4% of timber needs Ample private forest land to meet Has little effect on timber and paper prices Damages nearby rivers and fisheries Recreation in national forests provides more local jobs and income for local communities than logging Decreases recreational opportunities

Deforestation

Tropical Deforestation: Consequences Rapid and increasing Loss of biodiversity Loss of resources (e.g., medicines) Contributes to global warming

Burning Tropical Forests

Causes of Tropical Deforestation Oil drilling Mining Flooding from dams Tree plantations Cattle ranching Cash crops Settler farming Fires Logging Roads Basic Secondary Secondary Causes Not valuing ecological services Exports Government policies Poverty Population growth Roads Basic Causes

Reducing Tropical Deforestation Encourage protection of large tracts Sustainable tropical agriculture Debt-for-nature swaps Reduce illegal cutting Reducing poverty and population growth

Sustaining Tropical Forests Solutions Sustaining Tropical Forests Prevention Restoration Protect most diverse and endangered areas Educate settlers about sustainable agriculture and forestry Phase out subsidies that encourage unsustainable forest use Add subsidies that encourage sustainable forest use Protect forests with debt-for-nature swaps, conservation easements, and conservation concessions Certify sustainably grown timber Reduce illegal cutting Reduce poverty Slow population growth Reforestation Rehabilitation of degraded areas Concentrate farming and ranching on already-cleared

Establishing, Designing, and Managing Nature Reserves Include moderate to large tracts of land Involve government, private sector and citizens Biosphere reserves Adaptive ecosystem management Protect most important areas (“hot spots”) Wilderness areas

Ecological Restoration Rehabilitation Remediation Replacement Creating artificial ecosystems

Ecological Restoration: Basic Principles Mimic nature Recreate lost niches Rely on pioneer species Control nonnative species Reconnect small patches

Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity What Can You Do? Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity Plant trees and take care of them. Recycle paper and buy recycled paper products. Buy wood and wood products made from trees that have been grown sustainably. Help rehabilitate or restore a degraded area of forest or grassland near your home. When building a home, save all the trees and as much natural vegetation and soil as possible. Landscape your yard with a diversity of plants natural to the area instead of having a monoculture lawn.