IINO, Atsushi Hosei University, Tokyo Japan iino@hosei.ac.jp Squaring the Circle 1st ELT Conference Izmir Economics University March 26, 2011 The Relationship between Shadowing and Dictation with Reference to Listening IINO, Atsushi Hosei University, Tokyo Japan iino@hosei.ac.jp IINO

1. Introduction ELT situation in Japan Instructional tradition focusing on written modes: reading and writing since 19c. Grammar translation method is still popular. Why? Less chance to use oral English in daily life Strong focus on preparing for entrance exams to high schools/ universities (DNC) Needs More Instructions focusing on oral aspect of English (listening and speaking) is needed IINO

To improve listening Top-down processing tasks Listening comprehension exercises Q&A(T/F, MCQ), Note taking, Retelling, Summary making, Task-based exchange Bottom-up processing tasks Decoding / reproduction exercises Repetitive listening, Dictation, Shadowing IINO

Definition: Dictation, Shadowing Dictation: written reproduction of acoustically presented messages. Originally a task for testing listening, but as an effective activity to improve listening Shadowing: verbatim repetition of acoustically presented messages. Or “Shadowing is an act or a task of listening in which the learners tracks the heard speech and repeats it as exactly as possible while listening attentively to the in-coming information.” (Tamai ,2002:179) Instructional dilemma: Time 　　 ‘Shadowing’ is an activity which has invited the attention of foreign language teachers as a way to improve target language proficiency (Kondo, 1992; Someya,1996; Tamai, 2002; Tanaka, 2002, Kadota, 2002; Torikai et al, 2003; Tamai & Kadota, 2004). Tamai (2002) described shadowing for language learning as follows. Shadowing is an act or a task of listening in which the learners tracks the heard speech and repeats it as exactly as possible while listening attentively to the in-coming information (p.179) IINO

Effects of Shadowing Improving listening ability (Nishimura, 1999; Tamai,2002; Iino,2004; Onaha,2007) Raising the prosodic sense, which is regarded as one of the important sub-skills necessary to acquire a language. (Mori 2010; Someya,1996) Improving overall proficiency For EFL especially, it is a way to improve target language proficiency (Kadota, 2002; Kondo, 1992; Tamai, 2002; Tanaka, 2002, Tamai & Kadota, 2004; Torikai et al, 2003; Someya,1996). Shadowing is one of the methods used to train simultaneous interpreters, however, some of the trainers have argued about the effect of the activity. Kondo (1992) introduced the controversy in Europe over shadowing among the trainers, in which the effect of shadowing was criticized because it was a mere ‘parrot style’ reproduction of sound without interpretation. Partially justifying the criticism from the viewpoint of the interpreters, Someya (1996), himself as an interpreter trainer, recognized the significant role of shadowing in order to improve general foreign language proficiency. He particularly pointed out its effect on raising the prosodic sense, which is regarded as one of the important sub-skills necessary to acquire a language. By the same token, it has been proven by other researchers that shadowing practice improves listening ability (Nishimura, 1999; Tamai,2002). IINO

2.Previous research comparing Dictation & Shadowing: Tamai（1992） Participants: two groups of Japanese high school students; Treatment: Instruction of shadowing for 3 months vs. dictation for 3 months Result: Shadowing > Dictation Shadowing could play the role of sub-skill of listening, activating subvocal rehearsal in the phonological loop in working memory IINO

Distribution of attention in working memory Central Executive Visuo-Spatial Sketch Pad Episode Buffer Phonological Loop Long-term Memory Visual meaning 　⇔ Episode ⇔ Language Working Memory Model (Baddeley, 2000) IINO 7

Previous research(2): Tamai（2005） RQ: Effects of shadowing / dictation on listening depending on English proficiency level. N=93　（university freshmen) IINO

Research Questions Do shadowing and dictation show same or different relationship according to proficiency level of the learners? How strong are the relationship between shadowing and listening and that between dictation and listening depending on proficiency level? (correlational studies) (3) Are shadowing and dictation interchangeable? What is the contribution of shadowing scores to overall proficiency? (multiple regression analyses) IINO 9 9

3. Participants Japanese college level (junior) EFL learners 70 non-English majored students Proficiency Index (/1000pts） Group A　N=33 Group B　 N=37 CASEC Ave ( SD) 558.97 （61.4） 521.08 (66.9) TOEIC conv’td ave. (SD) 507.88 （75.8） 　461.76 (79.6) Group A > B (p <.01) IINO

What is CASEC test? CAT (Computer Adaptive Test) 45min. (average) Converted score for TOEIC available Four sections with 15 problems, 250 pts each Section1 Vocabulary Section2 Reading and Expression Section 3 Listening comprehension Section 4 Dictation For more details, see http://casec.evidus.com/ IINO

4. Method Listening scores Used Section 3 in CASEC test IINO

Dictation scores Used Section 3 in CASEC IINO

Shadowing scores Shadowing test done to individual students Cf. Sample of marking procedure of shadowing IINO

5．Results &discussion Descriptive statistics IINO

Correlation coefficients IINO

RQ1 : Do shadowing and dictation show same or different relationship according to proficiency level of the learners? Result ① Moderately strong positive correlation coefficients were observed both in the high proficient learners (Gr. A, r =.503) and the lower proficient learners (Gr. B, r =.598)  shadowing and dictation show the similar relationship regardless of proficiency level IINO

②Shadowing & Listening A: weak (r=.149); B: moderately strong (r=.508) RQ 2: How strong are the relationship between shadowing and listening and that between dictation and listening depending on proficiency level? (correlational studies) Results: ②Shadowing & Listening　　　 　A: weak (r=.149); B: moderately strong (r=.508) ③Dictation &Listening　 A: weak (r=.153); B: moderately strong (r=.487) Low proficiency learners showed stronger relationships both in dictation and shadowing than High proficient learners. IINO

(3) Are shadowing and dictation interchangeable? Results ④Proficiency & Dictation　　 　 A&B: fairly strong (r = .698; r =.695) ⑤Proficiency &Shadowing　　 　 A: moderately weak (r = .320) ; B: fairly strong (r = .621) For lower proficient learners shadowing can be replaced to dictation. But not for high proficient learners. IINO

CASEC=Dictation+Dict+Listen+Exp+Vocab IINO

Multiple regression analyses (stepwise way: Lower Gr. sample) RQ:Can shadowing be alternated to dictation in predicting English proficiency of the learners CASEC=Shadow+Dict+Listen+Exp+Vocab IINO

Implication to the classroom Shadowing and dictation show the similar relationship regardless of proficiency level As a classroom activity we can interchangeably use them depending on the time available. E.g. Shadowing during the class, dictation as an assignment. Low proficiency learners showed stronger relationships both in dictation and shadowing than High proficient learners.  Following the previous research, both shadowing and dictation will be adopted as a part of instruction especially for lower level learners. For lower proficient learners shadowing can better be replaced to dictation. Need to improve automaticity of decoding both in written and oral modes. Sound based reproduction could be more effective for low proficient learners.. IINO

Conclusion: Significance of Shadowing For EFL learners who learn English in non- English speaking countries … Knowledge of vocabulary, syntax, sounds, pragmatics (Lots of input needed) ↓ Improve automaticity in processing (Lots of output practice needed) Practical Use (Lots of interaction needed) shadowing IINO

For further research Scoring procedure in shadowing Validity and reliability to be reaffirmed  Collect more data and make reliable evaluation method to be sought Further investigation needed including the components constructing sound rehearsal activity  Working memory components measure Further investigation to find the relationship with creative oral activities  Automaticity raising practices + Creative production of L2enhancing L2 performance IINO

Thank you Slides of this presentation are available HP: iino@e-learningserver.com Contact E-mail: iino@hosei.ac.jp IINO

References Tamai, Ken (1992) ｢`follow-up'の聴解力向上に及 ぼす効果およぴ"follow-up"能力と聴解カの関係｣ 「 STEP BULLETIN」 5:48-61 (Effects of “follow-up” on listening comrehesion and relationship between the abitly of “follow-up” and listening ability) Tamai, Ken （2005) 「リスニング指導法としてのシ ャドーイングの効果に関する研究」東京：風間書房 (Study on effects of shadowing as a way of listening instruction) IINO

Tamai（2005） Study ２ ＋ － Dicta- tion Shadow Control Listeining（SLEP） Reading (SLEP） Speed of reading aloud L1 Nouns Speed of reading aloud L2 Nous Digit span in L1（4-10 dgts） L2 Digit span Repeating unfamiliar words （multi-syllable words) 下位構成素として単語の音読速度、数字の記憶スパン、未知語の反復能力として探 索的にデータを採取し、比較した結果、読解力がディクテーションにおいて有意にの びたこと以外、大きな差は見られないことが分かった。 IINO 27 27

Listening Repeating IINO 28 28