고려대학교 산업공학과 IND561 Engineering Psychology Chapter 7. Memory and Training  OVERVIEW  Working memory – temporary, attention-demanding store examine, evaluate, transform, compare, mental arithmetic, predict encode it into long –term memory  Long-term memory – storehouse of facts  memory – three stage presentation  encoding -- putting things into memory system  storage – the way in which information is held or represented in the two memory systems  retrieval – our ability to access information in memory (forgetting) Working memory Long-term memory Encoding (Learning and training) Storage Retrieval Verbal Spatial Procedural, declarative organization, mental models

고려대학교 산업공학과 IND561 Engineering Psychology  WORKING MEMORY  three core components  verbal component  phonological store – info in linguistic form, words and sounds  articulatory loop  spatial component – visuospatial sketchpad – info in an analog, spatial form (visual images)  central executive – controls WM activity and assigns attentional resources to subsystems  Code Interference  verbal-phonetic and visual-spatial codes function cooperatively than competitively  Brooks (1968) -- in spatial working memory, verbal response better than spatial response  tasks should be designed so that this disruption does not occur  Interference in the Central Executive  four core functions of the central executive (Baddeley, 1996) 1)to coordinate performance on multiple tasks 2)to temporarily hold and manipulate information stored in LTM 3)to change retrieval strategies from LTM 4)to attend selectively to stimuli

고려대학교 산업공학과 IND561 Engineering Psychology  executive processing is controlled processing – not interfere with automatic processing  Matching Display with Working Memory Code  stimulus/central-processing/response compatibility  S – display modality (auditory and visual)  C – two possible central processing codes (verbal and spatial)  R – two possible response modalities (manual and vocal)  S-C compatibility (fig 7.3)  Limitations of Working Memory: Duration and Capacity  Duration  how long does information in WM last if it is not rehearsed?  without continuous rehearsal, little info is retained beyond 10 to 15 seconds  Capacity and Chunking  capacity limit interacts with time (fig 7.4) – rehearsal is not instantaneous  the faster the rehearsal speed, the larger the WM capacity  memory span – the limiting number recalled with full attention  max. capacity of WM -- 7± 2 chunks of information

고려대학교 산업공학과 IND561 Engineering Psychology  chunk – a set of adjacent stimulus units tied together by associations in the LTM  chunking – recording info. by semantically associating low-level elements  parsing – physically separating likely chunks  optimum chunk size – three to four for arbitrary alphanumeric strings  Interference and Confusion  MTBR lost from WM through interference from info learned at another time (fig 7.5)  PI (proactive interference) – activity engaged in prior to encoding the MTBR disrupts its retrieval  RI (retroactive interference) – activity during the retention interval disrupts retrieval of the MTBR  confusion – similarity -- typically acoustic but sometimes semantic  to minimize memory interference and confusion 1)avoid creating large strings of similar sounding chunks 2)use different codes for different sources of information 3)use digit strings that are particularly easy to remember 4)ensure that the intervals before, during, and after storage are free of unnecessary activity  Running Memory  interference by similarity: (1) separate operators, (2) separate attribute labeling, or (3) separate spatial locations

고려대학교 산업공학과 IND561 Engineering Psychology  EXPERTISE AND MEMORY  Expertise 1.acquired through practice or training in a domain 2.provides a measuring performance advantage 3.involve specialized, rather than generic, knowledge  intrinsic -- a task defines the domain of expertise  contrived – not central to the domain of expertise, but improves performance  Expertise and Chunking  store relevant stimulus material in WM in terms of chunks rather than lowest-level unit  our ability to chunk information depends on our expertise in the subject domain  Skilled Memory 1.skilled activities can be interrupted, and later resumed, with little effect on performance 2.performance in skilled tasks requires quick access to a large amount of information  LT-WM – info. in LT-WM is stable, but accessed through temporarily active retrieval cues in WM  LT-WM is acquired for particular skill domain (medical diagnosis, waiting tables, mental arithmetic)  retrieval structure – a set of retrieval cues – dynamic, adaptive access to information

고려대학교 산업공학과 IND561 Engineering Psychology  LT-WM – chunking  SITUATION AWARENESS  situation awareness resides in WM (experts in LT-WM)  supported by attention, working memory, LTM, and the awareness itself  domain specific  LEARNING AND TRAINING  Development of Expertise: Learning  Procedural knowledge – knowledge of how to do things (knowing how)  declarative knowledge – knowledge of facts (knowing what) – chunks  5 characteristics of cognitive learning based on ACR-T and Soar 1.emphasis on instances 2.recall of the instance through chunking 3.training and experience 4.reducing cognitive load 5.intelligent tutors

고려대학교 산업공학과 IND561 Engineering Psychology  Transfer of Training  training efficiency 1)the best learning in the shortest time 2)longest retention 3)is cheapest?  transfer of training  how much a new skill can capitalize what has been learned before?  Measuring Transfer  % transfer = (control time – transfer time)/control time x 100 = savings/control time x 100  transfer effectiveness ratio TER = (amount of savings)/(transfer group time in training program) x 100  training cost ratio TCR = training cost in target environment (per unit time) training cost in the training program (per unit time)  Training system Fidelity  total fidelity in training – expensive, incompatible response tendencies, complexity  which components of training similar to the target task

고려대학교 산업공학과 IND561 Engineering Psychology  critical task components, processing demands, or task-relevant perceptual consistency  Virtual Environments  cost effective method for training  lowering TER but increasing TCR  more effective training technique for navigation of space  alternative for expensive and risky  Negative Transfer  positive transfer of inappropriate response (table 7.1)  Training Techniques  Practice and Overlearning  practice makes perfect  after zero performance errors  the speed of performance increases at a rate proportional to the log of the # of trials  attention or resource demand decreases – automated fashion  overlearning decreases the rate of forgetting of the skill  Elaborative Rehearsal  maintenance rehearsal – good way to maintain info. in WM but ineffective for transferring to LTM  elaborative rehearsal – the meaning of the material, chunking

고려대학교 산업공학과 IND561 Engineering Psychology  Reducing Cognitive Load  cognitive load theory  Part-Task Training  segmentation – different skill difficulties for each segment  fractionization  reducing cognitive load – automatic processing  prevent time-sharing skills  requires different WM subsystem  effective with independently broken off components and learnable consistencies  Guided Training  explicit and immediate feedback about the error  errors should not be eliminated completely  Knowledge of Results 1)delayed KR with other activities – RI 2)KR during performance less well than after completion – divided attention  Learning by Example  case studies – annotations and elaboration  not excessive cognitive load processing example

고려대학교 산업공학과 IND561 Engineering Psychology  Consistency of Mapping  between target info. and the trainee’s response  varied mapping increases in performance during training  feature learning procedure between consistent and varied  LTM  Knowledge Representation  Knowledge Organization  information is not stored in a random collection of facts, rather in structure and organization  Mental Models  a mental structure that reflects the user’s understanding of a system  incorporate a mental model into a training program  visibility  Memory Retrieval and Forgetting  Recall and Recognition  recall – knowledge in the head  recognition – knowledge in the world – more sensitive

고려대학교 산업공학과 IND561 Engineering Psychology  failure of recall and recognition (forgetting)  RI, PI, similarity (confusion), the absence of retrieval cues, passage of time (recency)  Skill Retention  Degree of Overlearning  Skill Type  perceptual-motor skill – very little forgetting over long time  procedural skill – more rapidly forgotten  Individual Differences  fast learners – chunking skills