Chapter 10 frontispiece. Trains loaded with coal departing from the Rawhide coal mine near Gillete, Wyoming E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming and Our Energy Future, Columbia University Press. Photograph by J. Foster 104

Figure The fuels used to produce all energy worldwide, 2005 E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming and Our Energy Future, Columbia University Press. Data from Energy Information Agency, DOE 105

Table Some common units of energy and power E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming and Our Energy Future, Columbia University Press. Prefixes Kilo (K) 10 3 Giga (G)10 9 Peta (P)10 15 Mega (M)10 6 Tera (T)10 12 Exa (E)10 18 Units and Some Common Amounts Joule (J) = basic unit of energy exajoule = joules British thermal unit (Btu) = energy needed to heat 1 pound of water 1°F = 1,055 joules exajoule = (1 quadrillion [quad]) Btu Toe = tons of oil equivalent = x 10 9 joules 1 million toe = petajoule Watt (W) = unit of power (work) = energy per unit time = 1 joule/sec kilowatt = 1,000 watts, megawatt = 10 6 watts, gigawatt = 10 9 watts Watt hours (WH) = energy = 1 W delivered over 1 hour = 1 joules/sec x 3,600 sec/hr = 3,600 joules 1 kilowatt hour = 3.6 x 10 6 joules, 1 megawatt hour = 3.6 x 10 9 joules, 1 gigawatt hour = 3.6 x joules, 1 kilowatt hour = 3,413 Btu Metric ton (t) = 1,000 kilograms 106

Figure Emissions of CO 2 from fossil-fuel burning according to fuel type, and projected to 2030 E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming and Our Energy Future, Columbia University Press. Data from Energy Information Agency, DOE 107

Figure Annual emissions of CO 2 from various sectors E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming and Our Energy Future, Columbia University Press. Source: Rogner et al.,

Table World’s recoverable coal reserves in gigatons as of January 2003 E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming and Our Energy Future, Columbia University Press. Source: Energy Information Agency, DOE United States Russia China India Non-OECD b Europe, Eurasia Australia, New Zealand South Africa OECD Europe Brazil World total a Anthracite, bituminous, and lignite are different coal types with decreasing carbon and heat contents b OECD = Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. Region/Country Bituminous and Anthracite a Sub- bituminous LigniteTotal 109

Figure Current and projected coal consumption in India, the United States, China, and the rest of the world E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming and Our Energy Future, Columbia University Press. Source: Energy Information Agency DOE 110

Table Comparison of performance and cost of some coal-fired, electricity-generating technologies E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming and Our Energy Future, Columbia University Press. Source: MIT CO 2 capture?NoYesNoYesNoYesNoYesYesNoYes Efficiency (%) CO 2 emitted a , Cost b a In units of grams per kilowatt hour. b Cost of electricity (COE) in cents per kilowatt hour. The COE is the constant dollar electricity price required over the life of the plant to provide for all expenses and debt and bring in an acceptable rate of return to investors. Subcritical Pulverized Coal (PC) Super- Critical PC Ultra- Super- Critical PC Sub- critical PC-oxy Subcritical Circulating Fluid Bed Integrated Gas Combined Cycle (IGCC) 111

Figure Simulation of the shape of a CO 2 plume as it spreads through a porous layer over a 20- year period E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming and Our Energy Future, Columbia University Press. Source: Doughty and Pruess,

Figure Schematic cross section and location of the Sleipner Project, Norwegian North Sea E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming and Our Energy Future, Columbia University Press. Source: Benson et al.,

uranium slow neutron  barium krypton neutrons megavolts Uranium-235 fission (example reaction) E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming and Our Energy Future, Columbia University Press. p

E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming and Our Energy Future, Columbia University Press. Photograph by J. Newman, American Museum of Natural History Figure Metatorbernite 115

Table Generating costs of wind and solar power in 2007 for three different amounts of sunlight received and wind velocities E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming and Our Energy Future, Columbia University Press. Source: Edmonds et al., 2007 Received irradiance (watts per square meter per year) 1,7002,0002,300 Solar photovoltaic (cents per kilowatt hour) Solar thermal (cents per kilowatt hour) Wind velocity (meters per second at 50 meters above ground) On-shore turbines (cents per kilowatt hour) Off-shore turbines (cents per kilowatt hour)

Figure Renewable sources of power as proportions of total U.S. electric net summer capacity, 2006 E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming and Our Energy Future, Columbia University Press. Source: Energy Information Agency, DOE 117

Figure Wind farm E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming and Our Energy Future, Columbia University Press. Source: National Renewable Energy Laboratory, DOE 118

Figure The growth of global installed wind power capacity, E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming and Our Energy Future, Columbia University Press. 119

Table National installed wind power capacities as of the end of 2007 E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming and Our Energy Future, Columbia University Press. Source: Global Wind Energy Council Germany22, United States 16, a Spain 15, India8, b China6, Denmark3, Italy2, France2, United Kingdom2, Portugal2, Canada1, b Netherlands1, Japan1, b Total Europe57, World total94, b Note: Data are for countries with capacities greater than 1,000 megawatts. a For 2006; b As a proportion of total national electricity generation. Capacity (Megawatts) Percentage of World Capacity Percentage of National Electricity Demand 120

Figure An array of photovoltaic panels E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming and Our Energy Future, Columbia University Press. National Renewable Energy Laboratory, DOE, photograph by S. Wilcox 121

Figure Parabolic troughs E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming and Our Energy Future, Columbia University Press. National Renewable Energy Laboratory, DOE, photograph by W. Gretz 122

Figure The worldwide growth of capacity from photovoltaic cells E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming and Our Energy Future, Columbia University Press. Data from British Petroleum

Figure The stabilization triangle and wedge: a way of thinking about how to solve the emissions problem E.A. Mathez, 2009, Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming and Our Energy Future, Columbia University Press. 124