Language II: Language Production and Bilingualism Chapter 10 Language II: Language Production and Bilingualism

Introduction Many forms of language production Social nature of language production More research on comprehension than production Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10

Speaking Producing a Word Selecting the word Grammatical, semantic, and phonological accuracy Are all three kinds of information retrieved simultaneously or independently? van Turennout and colleagues (1998)—grammatical gender accessed about 40 milliseconds before phonological properties Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10

Speaking Producing a Word Motor movements of vocal system and gestures Frick-Horbury and Guttentag (1998) read definitions and identify word with or without hand movements restricted Eyes and looking before naming Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10

Speaking Producing a Sentence Limits of attention and memory Order of producing speech: Plan the gist – intent/meaning Construct general structure of sentence – syntax, not words Choose words (with correct grammatical form) Connect to phonemes Coordinate muscle movements to produce speech Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10

Speaking Producing a Sentence Pauses occupy about half of our speaking time Linearization problem—transforming general thought or mental image into an ordered, linear sequence of words Prosody—"melody", rhythm, emphasis Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10

Speaking Speech Errors Types of Slip-of-the-Tongue Errors slips-of-the-tongue—errors in which sounds or entire words are rearranged between two or more different words Types of Slip-of-the-Tongue Errors 1. Sound errors 2. Morpheme errors 3. Word errors Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10

Speaking Speech Errors Types of Slip-of-the-Tongue Errors each type can involve errors of: exchange, anticipation, perseveration, and/or deletion errors reveal our extensive language knowledge errors tend to occur across items from the same category Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10

Speaking Speech Errors Dell's Model of Sound Processing in Sentence Production similar to connectionist approach spreading activation planning activates sound elements each sound can be activated by several different words high activation can cause the incorrect sound to be produced Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10

Dell’s Model of Sound Processing in Sentence Production (simplified) Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10

Speaking Producing Discourse discourse—language units larger than a sentence narrative—type of discourse in which someone describes a series of actual or fictional events time-related sequence emotionally involving goal to convey words chosen carefully entertaining Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10

Speaking Producing Discourse narrative structure overview summary of characters and setting complicating action point resolution final signal of completion Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10

Speaking The Social Context of Speech Speakers must consider their conversation partners coordinating turn-taking agreed meanings intentions pragmatics—knowledge of the social rules that underlie language use; how speakers successfully communicate messages to their audience Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10

Speaking The Social Context of Speech Common Ground common ground—occurs when conversationalists share similar background knowledge, schemas, and experiences necessary for mutual understanding collaboration paying attention avoiding ambiguous statements clarify misunderstandings nonverbal language to clarify Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10

Speaking The Social Context of Speech Common Ground Clark and Wilkes-Gibbs (1986) pairs of participants arranging figures in order developing mutual shorthand and shared vocabulary conversational partners become more skilled in communicating efficiently Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10

Common Ground Figures from Demonstration 10.3: Collaborating to Establish Common Ground Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10

Speaking The Social Context of Speech Common Ground lexical entrainment—pattern two communicators use when they create and adopt a standard term to refer to an object Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10

Speaking The Social Context of Speech Common Ground Bortfeld and Brennan (1997) photos of chairs English, Japanese, Chinese, and Korean speakers all pairs showed same degree of lexical entrainment speakers often overestimate listeners' ability to understand a message Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10

Speaking The Social Context of Speech Common Ground speakers tend to assume that listeners need and want the same things the speakers themselves do less likely to effectively establish common ground under time pressure Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10

Speaking The Social Context of Speech Directives directive—a sentence that requests someone to do something polite directives require more words overly elaborate directives may seem insulting anticipate potential obstacles to compliance indirect request—stated like a request for information, even though really a request for someone to do something or to stop doing something Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10

Writing Writing requires virtually every cognitive process One of the least understood linguistic tasks Similarities and differences from speaking Planning, sentence generation, revising Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10

Writing A Cognitive Model of Writing Cognitive processes, social factors, motor factors, motivational factors self-efficacy—your own assessment of your capabilities Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10

Writing A Cognitive Model of Writing working memory phonological loop visuospatial sketchpad central executive long-term memory including semantic memory, expertise, schemas, and knowledge about specific writing style Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10

Writing Planning the Writing Assignment prewriting—generating a list of ideas; difficult and strategic; large individual differences outlining resolving linearization problem Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10

Writing Sentence Generation During Writing sentence generation—translate the general ideas developed during planning into actual sentences of the text hesitant phases and fluent phases longer vs. shorter words writing errors most likely to be spelling errors within a single word rather than between-word errors like slips-of-the-tongue Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10

Writing The Revision Phase of Writing emphasize the importance of organization and coherence reconsider whether the writing accomplishes the goals of the assignment revision should be time consuming Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10

Writing The Revision Phase of Writing effective writers use flexible revision strategies college students typically devote little time to revising metacognitions about the writing process seem to be inaccurate Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10

Writing The Revision Phase of Writing Experts vs. Novices novices revise sentence-by-sentence; focus on spelling and grammar experts work more on organization, focus, and transition between ideas novices judge defective sentences as appropriate experts better able to diagnose the source of a problem in a sentence Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10

Writing The Revision Phase of Writing Proofreading difficult to proofread your own writing spell-checkers don't catch everything proofread for spelling separately from content Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10

Writing Metacognition and Writing metacognitive strategies helpful at all stages of writing random thoughts vs. transforming knowledge analyzing potential problems in advance and planning how to solve them monitoring whether writing matches intended message beware of overconfidence Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10

Writing Applied Psychology: Writing About Emotional Problems Pennebaker and colleagues—writing in clinical psychology settings 15-20 minutes a day, 3 to 4 consecutive days write about previous traumatic experience vs. trivial topics Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10

Writing Applied Psychology: Writing About Emotional Problems Pennebaker and colleagues (continued) experimental condition benefits—better grades, finding job, improved immune system words about cognitive activity better predictor of physical health than words revealing emotions creating an understanding of the painful experience Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10

Writing Applied Psychology: Writing About Emotional Problems Westling and colleagues (2007) writing program with HIV-positive women women who wrote about life meaning more likely to show improvement in taking medications Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10

Bilingualism and Second- Language Acquisition most people throughout the world have mastered two or more languages bilingual speaker—a person who actively uses two different languages multilingual simultaneous bilingualism sequential bilingualism, first language, second language interlanguage Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10

Bilingualism and Second- Language Acquisition Background on Bilingualism More than half of the people in the world are at least somewhat bilingual Valuing non-English first languages Political and social-psychological implications Social-psychological factors predictive of success in acquiring a second language—motivation and attitude toward speakers of that language Learning a language can also influence attitudes Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10

Bilingualism and Second- Language Acquisition Advantages of Bilingualism 1. Bilinguals actually acquire more expertise in their native (first) language. 2. Bilinguals are more aware that the names assigned to concepts are arbitrary (part of metalinguistics, or knowledge about the form and structure of language). 3. Bilinguals excel at paying selective attention to relatively subtle aspects of a language task, ignoring more obvious linguistic characteristics. Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10

Bilingualism and Second- Language Acquisition Advantages of Bilingualism 4. Bilingual children are better at following complicated instructions and performing tasks where the instructions change from one trial to the next. 5. Bilinguals perform better on concept-formation tasks and on tests of nonverbal intelligence that require reorganization of visual patterns. Bilinguals also score higher on problem-solving tasks that require them to ignore irrelevant information. Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10

Bilingualism and Second- Language Acquisition Advantages of Bilingualism 6. Bilingual children perform better than monolinguals on tests of creativity, such as thinking of a wide variety of uses for a paper clip. 7. Bilingual children are more sensitive to some pragmatic aspects of language. Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10

Bilingualism and Second- Language Acquisition Advantages of Bilingualism Bialystok (2001, 2002)—most advantages can be traced to selective-attention skills; inhibiting the most obvious response to produce an alternative response Disadvantages far outweighed by advantages Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10

Bilingualism and Second- Language Acquisition In Depth: Second-Language Proficiency as a Function of Age of Acquisition age of acquisition critical period hypothesis gradual decline vs. abrupt drop Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10

Bilingualism and Second- Language Acquisition In Depth: Second-Language Proficiency as a Function of Age of Acquisition Phonology age of acquisition does influence mastery of phonology (sounds of speech) Flege and coauthors (1999) Korean-Americans degree of accent inversely correlated with age of emigration fairly smooth decline rather than abrupt drop Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10

Bilingualism and Second- Language Acquisition In Depth: Second-Language Proficiency as a Function of Age of Acquisition Vocabulary when the measure of language proficiency is vocabulary, age of acquisition does not seem to be related to language skills Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10

Bilingualism and Second- Language Acquisition In Depth: Second-Language Proficiency as a Function of Age of Acquisition Grammar Flege and coauthors (1999) judging sentences as grammatical once we control for years of education in the United States, age of acquisition was not related to an individual's mastery of English grammar Studies with other languages—no consistent relationship between age of arrival and mastery of English grammar Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10

Bilingualism and Second- Language Acquisition Individual Differences: Simultaneous Interpreters and Working Memory translation—from a text written in one language into a second written language interpreting—the process of translating from a spoken message in one language into a second spoken language three working-memory tasks at the same time Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10

Bilingualism and Second- Language Acquisition Individual Differences: Simultaneous Interpreters and Working Memory Christoffels, de Groot, and Kroll (2006) Dutch speakers—students, teachers of English, interpreters reading-span test and speaking-span test all groups recalled more words in their native language (Dutch) simultaneous interpreters remembered significantly more words than the other two groups, both in reading span and speaking span Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10

Simultaneous Interpreters Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin Chapter 10